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RED ARMY AIR FORCE HIGHER OFFICER SCHOOL

Title: Buy the book "Instructions for air combat of fighter aircraft (IVBIA-45)": feed_id: 5296 pattern_id: 2266 book_author: _will not work well book_name: Instructions for air combat of fighter aircraft (IVBIA-45)

For a long time there has been a need to generalize the combat experience of fighter aviation in the field of forms and techniques of air combat, both single and group up to and including the squadron.

This Instruction is a document summarizing the combat experience of fighter aircraft in air combat, and enables each fighter pilot to creatively use the techniques and methods of air combat. Considering that the Higher Officer School of Air Combat of the Red Army Air Force, during the training of fighter pilots, has not yet had a document summarizing the combat experience of air combat of fighter aircraft and the training methodology,

i order:

This Instruction on air combat of fighter aircraft should be considered the main guide for the training and education of fighter pilots undergoing an advanced training course at school.

Head of the Higher Officers' School of Air Combat of the Air Force of the Red Army Guards Major General of Aviation Zhukov.

School Chief of Staff Lieutenant Colonel Rytsk

I. GENERAL PROVISIONS

§ 1. Fighter aviation is the main means of fighting for air supremacy and has as its main purpose the destruction of enemy aircraft in air battles.

§ 2. Fighter aircraft are fighting for air supremacy with the aim of providing ground troops and other types of aviation from air strikes.

§ 3. For the successful conduct of air battles, fighter pilots must be able to provide themselves with the necessary reserve of altitude and speed, and also correctly combine the maneuver with the fire of their aircraft.

Victory in aerial combat is achieved by actively attacking the enemy and maximizing the use of the tactical flight capabilities of the fighter aircraft.

Offensive air combat tactics are based on the pilots' skill:

Carry out surprise attacks on enemy aircraft;

Make the most of the vertical maneuver;

Quickly and expediently to maneuver and destroy the enemy from the first attack;

Interact with each other within a pair, as well as between pairs, links and squadrons;

Make full use of the strengths of your materiel and the weaknesses of the materiel of the enemy;

Accurately follow the orders and orders of their commanders in the air and on the ground.

§ 4. A surprise attack enables a fighter to destroy an enemy aircraft before he is able to take measures for his own defense.

To attack the enemy suddenly, it is necessary to spot him first and remain unnoticed until the moment fire opens on him.

To achieve surprise of an attack, it is necessary to use as much and competently as possible: the sun, cloudiness, haze, terrain background and dead sectors of the enemy's view.

A necessary condition for achieving surprise is also flying in dismembered combat formations, quickly approaching the enemy and inflicting simultaneous attacks on him from different directions.

§ 5. Vertical maneuver provides pilots with the opportunity to quickly acquire the attack initiative in air combat, to forestall the enemy in taking an advantageous starting position for going over to the attack, and to force him to take up a defense.

It is completely unacceptable to switch to combat in the horizontal plane on fighters with high maneuverability in the vertical plane, as this quickly leads to a loss of initiative and unnecessary losses in combat.

§ 6. A quick and expedient maneuver ensures the possibility of a sudden destruction of the enemy.

A sudden, swift and daring attack morally suppresses the enemy, causes him confusion, does not give him the opportunity to prepare to repel the attack and, as a rule, leads to the destruction of the enemy.

Each attack must be carried out decisively and persistently to the utmost close range.

Fire should be carried out aimingly and in bursts of such duration that ensure the economical use of ammunition and the destruction of the enemy from the first attack.

You need to shoot at vital parts of the aircraft, i.e. the engine, gas tanks and crew.

Unsighted fire unmasks the attacker and leads to a waste of ammunition.

If the attack is unsuccessful, you need to quickly take the starting position for a second attack, stubbornly striving to destroy the enemy.

§ 7. The ability of pilots to interact in pairs, links, squadrons allows you to quickly win a victory even over a numerically superior air enemy and exclude the possibility of an attack from his side.

A fighter, being an offensive weapon, can hit the enemy only when flying at him, only by attacking.

If the fighter (group) is in the attacked position; and cannot respond to the enemy with his fire, then his necessary maneuver will be to go under the protection of his partner (group), and the partner (group) is obliged to immediately repel the attack.

The essence of interaction in battle is mutual support, assistance and revenue of individual aircraft, pairs, units, groups. Attacks of one (group) must be covered or supported by others in order to build up the blow and exclude the possibility of an attack from the enemy.

The most effective interaction will be when the group is provided with clear and continuous control by the commander. Victory in a battle is achieved by coordinated actions of aircraft in pairs, pairs in a flight, and flights in a group.

A well-organized search in a group and notification of a detected enemy, a competent formation of battle formations that ensure the most effective search, the allocation of a high-altitude echelon are the best means of protection against surprise attacks by the enemy.

§ 8. Full use of the strengths of their material part and the weaknesses of the material part of the enemy makes it possible (to put him in unfavorable conditions.

It is necessary to drag the enemy to unfavorable heights, where the tactical flight characteristics of his aircraft are worse in comparison with other heights, and the tactical flight data of our aircraft will be the best. This is ensured by capturing the battle initiative, achieving an excess over the enemy at the beginning of the battle, and maintaining it during the battle. It is necessary to take into account the fire superiority of some enemy aircraft and, when choosing the direction of attack, to use in combat with them such attacks that would prevent them from using their fire superiority. Knowledge of the tactics of enemy aircraft, their flight and tactical capabilities, favorite and avoided techniques in battle, viewing angles and vulnerabilities makes it possible to unravel the enemy's maneuver and impose attacks unfavorable for him.

§ 9. Accurate execution of orders and orders of their commanders in the air and on the ground is a prerequisite for the successful completion of the battle.

The strictest discipline, high conscientiousness and honesty of the pilot, a sense of responsibility for comrades and the outcome of the battle must always be combined with high combat skill, the ability to take risks and a readiness for self-sacrifice. Martial art and discipline are inseparable whole, and the separation of one from the other leads to the fact that:

Courage turns into recklessness;

Fighting audacity - a useless game with death;

Self-reliance is conceit.

All actions of the pilot in battle should be only in the interests of the partner, the group; the desire for personal victory, as a rule, leads to unnecessary losses and the loss of the group fight together.

§ 10. Selflessly devoted to the party Lenin-Stalin and the Socialist Motherland, a fighter pilot must possess the following qualities of an air fighter:

Perfectly master the technique of piloting at all modes and altitudes, be able to maintain your place in battle formation under any conditions, be able to take from your aircraft everything that it can give;

Be an excellent air gunner, be able to destroy the enemy from increased distances and from any position, be a master of the first strike;

Be bold, decisive and proactive, always look for a fight with the enemy and, with cold-blooded confidence in his superiority, defeat him;

To be able to use cunning and deceit in battle where the enemy least expects it;

Be able to constantly monitor the air, be the first to detect the enemy and impose a battle on him;

Have a sobriety of calculation and the ability to make quick decisions;

Be able to navigate in any conditions and quickly restore orientation after an air battle;

Be physically enduring and able to withstand intense combat work at high altitudes, high speeds and during prolonged diving;

To be able to quickly establish radio communication with each other and with the ground in flight and maintain it.

II. SEARCH FOR AN OPPONENT

§ 11. Search is the effort of a pilot or a group aimed at detecting the enemy in order to impose a surprise battle on him in favorable conditions. Search is mandatory for every pilot in the air.

§ 12. Observation of the airspace in order to search for the enemy should be:

Circular with an even distribution of attention throughout the entire sphere, with a predominant view of those areas that provide the enemy with tactical benefits and the convenience of air camouflage (dead viewing zones, direction to the sun, clouds, forests and mountain ranges);

Continuous, from the moment of boarding the plane until taxiing to the parking lot;

Deep, that is, providing the possibility of detecting the enemy at the maximum distance for sight by the slightest signs.

§ 13. The distribution of observation over the sphere and its continuity are carried out by the distribution of observation zones, the creation of responsibility of the aircraft crews for the timely detection of the enemy in the assigned sector and control. Especially it is necessary to verify the state of observation of the airspace when returning from a combat mission over its territory. The reasons for lowering the search for the enemy in this case may be the following:

After prolonged exertion, the pilot tends to rest due to weakening of his attention;

On its territory in the rear there are fewer ground guidance systems that would help the fighter to detect the enemy in time or warn him of the threat of attack;

Some complacency of the pilots, who believe that the threat of an attack far from the front line is unlikely;

The pilot's employment with signals from the ground, landing gear release, calculation for landing.

§ 14. In order to ensure the depth of observation, it is necessary to present requirements to the flight crew regarding the view, based on the physiological properties of the human body and especially vision.

A person can simultaneously observe space within an angle of 150 °, but visual acuity in this field is uneven, it is greatest at the central ray and rapidly decreases towards the periphery: beyond the angle of + 30 °, it is less than ¼% of the best vision. And only within + 30 ° a person is able to notice a dark point, which appears to be a distant plane (see Fig. No. 1).

The process of observing the airspace should be organized in such a way that, if possible, the entire sphere is surveyed by the specified narrow sector of + 30 ° by turning the head and eyes, however, the possibilities here are also limited.

Experience shows that without a lot of tension, a person is able to turn his head no more than 70 °, and with great tension, with a certain turn of the shoulders, no more than 100 °. Great stress is unacceptable for a long time, since it is accompanied by fatigue and a decrease in the quality of vision.

The angle of rotation of the eye normally does not exceed 30 °, its further displacement causes pain and rapid fatigue.

Taking into account the rotation of the head and eyes, as well as the field of view of clear vision of 30 °, the limits of the viewing area from the cockpit of the fighter plane are determined.

Fighter Pilot Vision Range:

Consequently, even with a high voltage, a pilot of a single aircraft, having viewing zones to the right and left of 160 °, is unable to regularly observe the tail of his aircraft within + 20 ° (see Fig. No. 2).

This section is visible with periodic tops of 15-20 °, which should be done smoothly with small rolls. Sharp lapels with large rolls unmask fighters, attracting the attention of the enemy with an increase in area and a sharp change in position in space.

§ 15. Surveillance in pairs should be organized on the basis of the principle: in a group of fighter aircraft, each pilot provides observation and fire, first of all, to the other crew of the group, and then to himself. To accomplish this, it is advantageous for each pilot to shift the observation axis, i.e., the middle direction, by about 30 °, then inward viewing will be possible without much stress with an angle of 130 + 30 \u003d 160 °, counting from the aircraft axis.

Outside, the viewing area is reduced by 30 °, its size is 160 - 30 \u003d 130 °, but it is successfully observed by a partner.

However, there is a blind zone between aircraft in depth at three intervals: for an interval of 150 m, the blind zone is at a distance of 450 m, for an interval of 200 m, the blind zone is at a distance of 600 m (see Fig. No. 3).

Therefore, it is advantageous to observe large intervals when searching.

For a better view of the rear hemisphere, the slave in a pair should periodically make lapels by 15-20 °.

§ 16. When searching for an enemy by a link, the strike pair concentrates on the search for the main forces of the enemy, mainly in the front hemisphere in order to strike; the leading pair focuses on the search for enemy fighters, especially in the rear hemisphere, in order to repel a possible attack from their side.

§ 17. When a squadron searches for an enemy, the strike group (flight) searches for the main enemy forces and strikes at them; The covering group, ensuring the actions of the strike group against possible attacks from the enemy fighters, focuses on finding the enemy in the upper and rear hemispheres. The reserve group (group of free maneuvers) searches for the enemy in the upper hemisphere and provides a covering group from possible attacks from the upper hemisphere.

§ 18. The search for the enemy at night can be carried out both together with searchlights, and without them. When searching for an enemy on a moonlit night, it is more advantageous to be in relation to its probable location in the side opposite to the moon and below in order to observe the enemy against the background of the moon. If the landing is made above the clouds illuminated by the moon, then it is more advantageous to be above the likely flight of the enemy in order to observe him against the background of clouds.

Searching is much more difficult on a dark night. Detection of enemy aircraft by exhaust emissions is possible at a distance of no more than 400-500 m.

§ 19. At dusk and dawn, to search, it is necessary to be on the dark side of the horizon and below in order to see the enemy against the background of the bright part of the horizon. If the situation forces you to be on the side of the bright part of the horizon, then you must be below the enemy's probable flight altitude in order to project against a dark background of the earth, and see the enemy against the background of the sky.

§ 20. The quality of mutual information about the air situation, and especially about the appearance of the enemy, depends on the pilots' ability to quickly transmit the necessary information to their partner, which is possible only if there are short, accurate and clear signals. The one who detects the enemy first must tell the commander immediately: where is the enemy, the number of aircraft, the type and nature of the enemy's actions.

The best way to know about a detected enemy would be:

a) to indicate the direction:

front right,

back right,

back left,

front left;

b) to indicate the height:

below 500 m,

above 1000 and;

c) to indicate the quantity:

five, etc .;

d) to indicate the type:

fighters,

bombers.

Example: in front, on the right, above 1000, three, Yu-88, which means that three aircraft of the Ju-88 type were found in front, on the right with an excess of 1000 m.

§ 21. Review of all areas of the sphere must be timely. The pilot must know the time required for the enemy to cover the distance from the moment of his detection to reaching the firing position (500 m).

The section of the path on which it is possible to detect the enemy with average training will be 4000 m-500 m \u003d 3500 m.This section is passed simultaneously by both aircraft, therefore, the speed of approach of the aircraft will depend on the mutual direction of their movement.

With the speed of modern fighters 600-650 km / h, or an average of 175 m per second, the speed of approach on a head-on course is determined by the sum of 1754-175 \u003d 350 m / sec. The rendezvous time in this case will be 3500: 350 \u003d 10 sec .; on crossing courses, the approach time can be considered practically, depending on the enemy's speed. The approach time will be 3500: 175 \u003d 20 seconds; on passing courses, the surge speed is determined by the difference in aircraft speeds, which does not exceed 200 km / h. or 55 meters per second. The approach time will be 3500: 55 \u003d 60 seconds. or 1 minute.

In this case, the most stringent standards are calculated for the case of maximum speeds.

§ 22. Distance of 500 m is the firing range. It is dangerous to let the enemy come closer to you than this distance. A sphere with a radius of 500 m around the aircraft is a danger zone for the fighter pilot in all cases of flight.

The calculation shows that the enemy, attacking at a speed of 550 km / h. (on a collision course and at the same altitude), it will cover a distance of 1000 m to the opening zone of 500 m to the attacked aircraft having a speed of 450 km / h in 4 seconds.

Distance of 2000 m in 8 sec.

"At 3000 m in 12 sec.

"At 4000 m in 16 sec.

»At 5000 m in 20 sec.

On passing courses, it will cover a distance of 1000 m in 36 seconds.

Distance in 2000 m in 1 min. 12 sec.

»At 3000 m in 1 min. 48 sec.

»At 4000 m in 2 min. 24 sec.

»At 5000 m in 3 min.

With a 4/4 angle, the distance will travel in:

1000 m in 7 sec.

2000 m in 14 sec.

3000 m in 21 sec.

4000 m in 28 sec.

5000 m in 35 sec.

§ 23. In order for observation to be circular in the sphere, continuous, deep and at the same time meet the specified norms, it is necessary to adhere to a certain sequence in the examination.

It is most convenient to guide the central line of sight along the following route:

Forward-to the left with a 20 ° offset from the observation axis, starting from the top, then

Down and back to inspect the back of the left hemisphere from bottom to top, then

Inspection of the side section of the left hemisphere downwards, then

Revisiting the front section from the bottom up and

Go to the zenith inspection.

The right hemisphere is examined in the same order (see Fig. No. 4).

Inspection of the sphere in the specified sequence by an average-trained pilot takes 15-20; sec.

§ 24. The enemy should be looked for in the distance, in the depths of space, peering into him, straining his eyes. After making sure that there is no enemy in the depths and on the horizon (far ahead of you), you need to shift your gaze to yourself in all three directions. Particular attention should be paid back to the dead view cone, while the gaze from the depths of space should instantly be transferred to extremely short distances, under the tail of your aircraft, to inspect the rear hemisphere.

§ 25. The search for the enemy can be private and general. Private search-search for an enemy who must be destroyed according to a combat order, for example, a flight to intercept and destroy a scout, if the latter is not in sight at the time of departure.

If the scout is found, the private search will be terminated.

From the moment of landing in the cockpit, during the private search, at the moment of approach, during the entire flight and battle until the moment of landing and taxiing the aircraft into cover, the pilot continuously conducts a general search for other aircraft in order to exclude a surprise attack from a previously unnoticed enemy and the possibility of an attack on him.

§ 26. The significance of the search is great: whoever noticed the enemy first, he has an undeniable advantage in battle:

He preempts the enemy in taking an advantageous position for the attack;

It is easier for him to achieve surprise through the use of the sun and clouds;

He has more opportunity to start a battle with an attack, take the initiative of the battle into his own hands and force the enemy to start the battle from the defense.

§ 27. The main methods of detecting the enemy:

Visual observation - aircraft is detected as a point at a distance of 3000-5000 m, and a group of bombers up to 7000 m;

Special radar installations, which allow under any weather conditions, at any time of the day or year, to monitor the air and detect targets at a considerable distance.

In this case, it is possible to determine the location of the aircraft at the time of detection, the course and ground speed of the aircraft (group), approximately the flight altitude, to distinguish the flight of a single aircraft from the flight of a group, and approximately determine the composition of the latter.

§ 28. Auxiliary signs of the presence or approach of enemy aircraft:

When flying on enemy territory, a sudden cessation of anti-aircraft fire indicates the approach of his fighters;

The appearance of enemy fighters over the front line or rear lines and the desire to impose a battle on cover fighters often precedes the appearance of enemy bombers in a given area;

Bursts of shells from their own anti-aircraft artillery indicate the presence or approach of enemy aircraft in the area. The visibility of the breaks is 10-15 km.

§ 29. Any aircraft found in the air must be considered hostile until its identity is clearly established.

When aircraft are detected, it is necessary to carefully inspect the space and determine the grouping, the number of enemy aircraft and the nature of their action.

§ 30. Battle formations during the search period should be open and echeloned at altitudes so as not to lose mutual fire support between pilots and echelons and not to complicate the independent observation of the air by each pilot individually.

§ 31. The flight route during the search must be built so that the tail of the aircraft is as little as possible towards the sun. If the flight is carried out from the sun, then it is impossible to go in a straight line, it is necessary to make kinks in the direction of the path so that the sun turns out alternately to the right and then to the left, but it would never be behind the plane; or leave with belittling at the expense of high speed.

When searching, it is advantageous to be between the sun and the likely location of the enemy.

§ 32. The choice of flight altitude is of great importance for the search. You cannot walk at the same altitude and with one route; it is necessary to change the route during the entire flight, both in height and in direction. The commander of the pair leads a detailed orientation, the slave-general.

§ 33. In the presence of overcast clouds, a search flight must be performed:

At the bottom of the cloud, periodically dropping by 400-500 m to view the space under the clouds;

When flying above clouds, it is more advantageous to stay higher in order to see the enemy against the background of clouds;

Flying in the haze should be avoided if the sky is clear above.

A pilot walking in the haze cannot see anything, and the enemy located above can detect him completely freely.

§ 34. On cloudy and foggy days, when visibility is limited, maneuvering when looking for an enemy should be significantly increased.

§ 35. Invaluable assistance in finding the enemy can be provided by ground-based radio guidance and signal fire of anti-aircraft artillery, which increase the "pilot's field of view."

§ 36. Guidance from the ground has the purpose of ensuring the interception of enemy aircraft and the meeting with them of our fighters in conditions favorable for conducting air combat.

Section 37. Guidance from the ground is carried out:

With the help of radar installations, observing the flight of enemy aircraft and their fighters, it is possible to target an invisible enemy by transmitting instructions through the guidance station;

Guidance radio stations located in the area of \u200b\u200boperations of our fighters;

Anti-aircraft artillery fire, projectile explosions for ZA are used to tell fighters where to fly to meet the enemy.

§ 38. When providing aviation of other types, the latter should facilitate the timely detection of the enemy. A notification about a detected enemy is made by radio and is duplicated by firing tracer bullets or missiles in the direction of the enemy.

§ 39. A fighter pilot must know for sure that no means of guidance will relieve him of the need to observe the air, and the success of his flight largely depends on a properly organized and executed search for the enemy.

III. AIRBATTLE PERIODS

Section 40. Air combat with a detected enemy consists of the following periods:

Rapprochement with the enemy;

Exit the battle.

Convergence

§ 41. Rapprochement is the actions of the pilot from the moment the enemy is detected until the transition to the attack.

§ 42. Every pilot in a combat flight requires the ability to quickly distinguish his aircraft from enemy aircraft, and in relation to the latter, distinguish by type in order to understand their combat properties.

Section 43. The distinction between aircraft and the determination of their type is made by their appearance. It can be produced from a range of 1000-2000 m according to general, group and individual characteristics.

§ 44. General features inherent in all enemy aircraft: characteristic angularity of their outlines, absence or small fairings between the wing and the fuselage, long fuselages. Group signs relate to a specific type of aviation. Enemy fighters have a thin fuselage end, a semicircular tail fin (ME-109) or a rounded trapezoid (FP-190). Enemy bombers have long, tall fuselages and do not have protruding cabins behind the wing.

Individual characteristics relate to one particular type of aircraft.

It is most convenient to divide all planes into three groups:

1. By the number of motors:

a) single-engine, which include fighters and obsolete aircraft XIII-126, Yu87;

b) twin-engine-ME-110, DO-215-217, etc .;

c) multi-engine-U-52, FP-Courier, etc.

2. By spacing of the vertical tail unit:

a) single-keel-Yu-88. XE-111;

b) two-keel-DO-215-217.

3. On the chassis:

a) with retractable landing gear;

b) with non-retractable landing gear.

Section 45. The identification is made on the basis of individual characteristics inherent in each type of aircraft.

§ 46. In combat practice, the following methods of determining the range to detected enemy aircraft should be used:

Visual - based on the sense of depth of space;

Visual - by the number of observed details of the aircraft appearance;

On the reticle.

§ 47. The first method of visual range determination is based on a sense of the depth of space and is the main one. The sense of the depth of space is practiced through systematic training.

The second method, determining the range by the number of observed details of the aircraft appearance, should be considered auxiliary.

The pilot must firmly remember that at a distance of 100 m he will observe:

Small details of the lantern device, slits in the tail unit, pilot's head, antenna;

At a distance of 200 m, rudders, ailerons, a mast, coupling of the canopy with the fuselage;

At a distance of 500 m, colored spots are visible, separate large parts of the aircraft (stabilizer, wings, fuselage) are visible.

At a distance of 1000 m, the aircraft appears as a distinct silhouette.

The third method is to determine the range using the sight reticle. To do this, it is necessary to divide all enemy aircraft in size into 4 groups with some standardization of their sizes. At a distance of 1000 m, the target will occupy as many thousandths in the reticle as its size in meters.

The range is inversely proportional to the angular magnitude of the target, that is, how many times the range has decreased, so many times the angular magnitude in thousandths has increased.

§ 48. Approach to a visible enemy must be carried out in such a way as to take an advantageous starting position for a surprise attack.

In case of an unexpected meeting at close range, the attack must be carried out immediately and with the greatest assertiveness in order to seize the initiative and destroy the enemy.

§ 49. The main task in the approach is to achieve a covert approach and to take an advantageous starting position for the attack.

§ 50. The fighter pilot must remember that the result of the attack depends on the quality of the approach. Therefore, the entire process of rapprochement should be built in the interests of the attack. Even at the beginning of the rapprochement, the pilot must clearly and clearly imagine the attack and the exit from it and, in accordance with this, build his maneuver during the rapprochement. If the approach is made in isolation from the subsequent attack, then the attack, as a rule, will be of little effect or even impossible.

Section 51. As a result of the rapprochement, the pilot must take a position in relation to the enemy that would ensure the following requirements:

The possibility of achieving surprise;

Lack of enemy fire resistance or low efficiency;

Minimum distance;

Small angle;

The ability to fire for a long time;

Convenience and safety of exit from the attack;

The ability to quickly repeat the attack, if the enemy is not destroyed during the first attack.

§ 52. To achieve surprise, you should approach and build your maneuver to reach the enemy from behind the clouds, along the edge of clouds or haze, from the sun, from the side of the dead aircraft view cones, and when flying below the enemy use the terrain background. During the maneuver, one should not hesitate, the approach must be carried out covertly and at the same time quickly: the faster the distance to the enemy is covered, the less likely the enemy will notice the threat and prepare to repel the attack. The speed of the approach makes up for the lack of stealth.

§ 53. In conditions when surprise is achieved not due to secrecy, but due to the speed of the approach, it is advantageous to have a significant advantage in altitude at the beginning of the approach with the enemy.

In this case, the fighter, developing a high dive speed, will quickly go over to the attack.

§ 54. It is not always advantageous, having found an enemy, to immediately approach him. In a number of cases, it is beneficial to move away from the enemy in order to ensure oneself the possibility of achieving a covert attack, namely:

When the enemy has tactical superiority;

When the enemy has a numerical superiority and the situation does not require an immediate attack;

When surprise cannot be achieved from a given direction.

§ 55. If fighters are flying in a group, then based on the air situation, the assigned mission and the balance of forces, the commander may decide to approach and engage the enemy or all aircraft, or part of the forces.

If a part of the forces is enough to destroy the enemy, then the other part does not enter the battle, but gains height, occupies a position on top and ensures the actions of the attacking group. The same group, being in sight of the enemy and diverting his attention to himself, can contribute to the achievement of surprise attack by the attacking group.

§ 56. When a pair detects an enemy, the latter must approach the enemy simultaneously with both aircraft and, approaching, attack either simultaneously or sequentially with one under the cover of the other.

§ 57. When a flight or squadron detects an enemy, the flight (squadron) commander may approach and attack simultaneously or by one pair (group) only.

In the latter case, the covering pair (group) gains height and provides the attack of the striking pair (group) and, if necessary, increases the strikes of the attacking pair (group).

§ 58. It is unprofitable to engage in battle with all forces, especially with a small enemy group, even if the enemy is numerically superior and if he has superiority in altitude, it is advantageous to engage part of the forces in battle so that the other part of the forces can gain height and achieve tactical advantages over enemy.

Attack

§ 59. The attack consists in direct impact on the enemy with fire. All previous actions of the fighter pilot must be subordinate to fire control issues.

§ 60. The striving of the fighter pilot must be directed towards approaching the enemy at a distance of actual fire and to be in a position that would ensure the possibility of conducting aimed fire and the immediate destruction of the enemy.

§ 61. If the attacker discovered the threat of attack too late, this means that he gave the enemy the opportunity to attack him suddenly; its main task in this case will be to disrupt the attack of the attacker by a maneuver that excludes the possibility of conducting aimed fire of the attacker and makes it possible to provide him with fire resistance.

The bomber's actions will consist of maneuvering an airplane to thwart a fighter's attack, and maneuvering a mobile weapon to focus fire on the attacker.

The actions of the fighter will consist in performing such a maneuver that would make it possible to exclude the firing of aimed fire and to oppose the fire of its stationary weapon to the fire of the attacker.

Section 62. An attack on an airborne enemy consists of the following stages:

Exit to the firing position;

Firing position;

Exit from the attack.

(See fig. No. 5).

The sequence of the stages of the attack in all cases remains constant, and the duration may vary based on the prevailing air situation.

§ 63. Exit to the firing position in time can be varied, based on the chosen direction of attack and the relative position of the opponents. If the direction of the attacker's flight is close to the direction of the subsequent attack, then the exit to the firing position is carried out in the minimum time and with a slight change in the direction of flight. With an increase in the angle of rotation to the target, the time to reach the firing position increases. For the accuracy of reaching the firing position, it is necessary to take into account and combine the excess (belittling) over the enemy, distance from him, his own speed and the speed of the enemy.

§ 64. The firing position is the decisive stage of the attack, since the outcome of the attack by fire is decided here. If, before reaching the firing position, the enemy did nothing to exclude it, then, as a rule, he will be attacked suddenly.

§ 65. The duration of the firing position in time depends on the chosen direction of attack (on passing courses, under small angles, with a small difference in speed, it will be greatest).

The firing position of the attacked bomber is much larger than the attacking fighter, since the bomber, having movable firing points, can fire even when the fighter, having ceased fire, is in close proximity to the bomber at the moment of leaving the attack, having its firing points directed from the enemy. (See fig. No. 6).

This advantage of the bomber forces the attacking fighter to make every effort to destroy the enemy from the first attack and, thereby reducing his firing position, to minimize his fire resistance.

A surprise attack and destruction of the enemy from the first attack makes it possible to completely eliminate fire resistance.

Section 66. Actions of a fighter pilot in a firing position:

Rough aiming;

Precise aiming;

Keeping fire.

(See fig. No. 7).

§ 67. Rough aiming - the direction of the fighter's weapon to the target. During this period, the pilot cannot yet fire, since after the maneuver to enter the firing position, the aircraft still maintains its inertial motion towards the maneuver.

§ 68. Accurate aiming - giving the weapon a position in the vertical and horizontal plane, necessary to hit the target. To determine the aiming point, the pilot must set the enemy's speed, angle and distance to him.

§ 69. Firing is the most important and decisive stage in a firing position. Having entered the firing position, the pilot, regardless of anything, must make every effort to destroy the enemy. The firing and aerobatic training of a fighter pilot should be aimed at ensuring that his actions in a firing position are calm and confident.

The quality of the firing position largely depends on the firing training of the fighter pilot (see Fig. No. 8).

§ 70. The exit from the attack is made:

If it is inexpedient to continue firing;

If you are at a disadvantage;

When there is a danger of collision.

The task of fighters in the shortest possible time is to get out of the enemy's fire zone by maneuvering, providing access to the next firing position in the shortest time.

If the enemy is knocked down, the attack stops.

§ 71. High speeds of modern aircraft significantly reduce the time of attack from the front hemisphere and from the side and significantly increase the angular speeds of the fighter and the side of the attacking aircraft, which complicates the accuracy of aiming and degrades the quality of fire as a whole.

The duration of the attack in time can be increased by increasing the firing distance, but with an increase in the latter, the probability of hitting decreases.

§ 72. With continuous aiming at an enemy aircraft flying in a straight line at a constant speed, when attacking from behind from the side and at the same height, the firing range, lead in thousandths and the angular relative speed of the fighter's movement towards the target will change (at the enemy's speed equal to 140 m / s, the attacker's speed is 170 m / s) as follows:

If the attack is made from the front from the side at the same height at the same speeds, then the firing range, lead in thousandths and the angular relative speed of the fighter to the target will change as follows:

Considering that a well-trained fighter pilot can keep a target in sight at an angular relative speed of no more than 10 ° per second, the above calculations show that one can count on the success of an attack only when it is carried out on a passing course.

When choosing the range of opening fire, it is necessary to be guided by the probability of hitting and the angular relative velocity at which the attacker can keep the target at the aiming point.

§ 73. The regime of fire in aerial combat is of particular importance. Due to the limited ammunition load on a modern fighter, the pilot must use it carefully so that by the decisive moment of the battle he will not be without ammunition.

The consumption of ammunition must be combined with the need for the most careful aiming, with full confidence in the possibility of hitting the enemy. In addition, the pilot must always have an emergency reserve of 20% ammunition in case of battle on return.

§ 74. The main measure to reduce the consumption of ammunition is to limit the length of the queue to strictly necessary dimensions. The required burst length depends on the distance and angular movement of the target and can be subdivided into short, medium and long.

A short burst lasts 0.5 sec. and can be used at large firing ranges (over 300 m) and high angular relative speeds of the enemy (over 10 ° per second).

The average queue lasts up to 1 sec. and can be used with accurate aiming and at low angular relative velocities of the enemy (no more than 10 ° per second), when continuous aiming is possible.

The long queue lasts up to 2 seconds. and can be used at very low angular relative velocities of the enemy (2-3 ° per second) and short ranges (no more than 75-25 m). when it is possible to fire until the enemy is completely destroyed.

Section 75. Successful shooting is obtained only if the aiming of the weapon is initially carried out with the aid of the sight.

As soon as the fire is open, attention must be transferred to the track, looking through the sight reflector.

§ 76. Correcting shooting on the track requires great skill and training of the pilot. While observing the track, the pilot must continue aiming continuously. Noticing how the track passes in relation to the target, it is necessary to direct the track to the target with a smooth movement of the aircraft. If the track is approaching the target, it is necessary to correct the shooting, if the track moves away from the target, then stop shooting and re-aim.

The only critical sign of a hit is a cut off the track at the target. An increase in the brightness of the track against the background of the target can sometimes serve as a side sign. Thus, the track is an auxiliary means for firing in air combat.

Collection

§ 77. The collection is made during the battle or at the end of it for:

Restoration of battle formations;

Enemy pursuit organizations:

Leaving the battle in case of an unfavorable course of it or retargeting for actions on other targets;

Return to the airfield.

§ 78. The collection area is usually designated on the ground and known to the pilots prior to departure. The assembly command is given by the group commander by radio or a signal by the evolution of the aircraft, indicating the square (if it was not indicated on the ground) and the height.

The assembly area is assigned a characteristic landmark, well known to pilots and clearly visible from the air.

§ 79. At the command “Gather” the commander leaves or postpones the battle to the designated area and informs the squad leaders (pairs) of his whereabouts by radio. Pilots, pairs, flights, having received a command to collect, in the absence of a threat of attack, follow to the assembly area, and if there is a threat of attack from the enemy by counterattacks and using moments when the enemy cannot attack at a given time, break away from him and go to the assembly area ... Crews (groups), which are in more favorable conditions, ensure the separation from the enemy of the crews (groups) that find themselves in more difficult conditions. Individual pairs, which are isolated from others, use the clouds and the sun to break away from the enemy, moving to the gathering area.

§ 80. The success of the collection depends on the speed of its execution. Effective assistance in a quick and orderly collection can be provided by specially designated groups, fresh forces of our fighters and anti-aircraft artillery that have come up. Fast gathering makes it possible to concentrate, forces to strike at the intended targets, retarget fighters or leave the battle in an organized and without loss.

§ 81. Individual planes, couples who arrived at the assembly area and did not find their group there, request its location from the latter and proceed to the specified area. Group location data can also be obtained from the ground.

In the absence of data on the location of the group, they increase their speed (using the meteorological and flight conditions) and leave for their airfield.

Leaving the battle

§ 82. Withdrawal from combat takes place:

When fuel is used up up to a certain limit, ensuring the return to the nearest airfield;

When retargeting fighters to operate in a different area;

In case of an unfavorable course of battle, with the permission of the commander who set the task.

§ 83. Withdrawal from the battle is made to end it.

Based on the air situation and combat conditions. the exit from the battle can be reduced to:

To withdraw from the battle with enemy fighters when there are tactical advantages over them;

To withdraw from the battle with superior forces of enemy fighters if they have tactical advantages;

To the exit from the battle with the bombers.

§ 84. Leaving the battle in the presence of tactical advantages over the enemy does not present any particular difficulty: by order (signal) of the commander, fighters, using excess speed and superiority in height, freely break away from the enemy, gather in groups, take their places in battle formation and follow for further actions. A couple (group) of reserve (free maneuver) with decisive attacks from above constrains the enemy's maneuver and does not give him the opportunity to rise to the height of our aircraft.

§ 85. Leaving the battle with superior enemy forces, and when he has tactical advantages (superiority in height and speed), is much harder and more difficult and requires great efforts on the part of the commander to withdraw the group from the battle without unnecessary losses. It is better to exit the battle under such conditions under the cover of fresh forces or FOR.

§ 86. The withdrawal from the battle should be saturated with decisive and timely counterattacks, clear fire interaction and end with an organized gathering.

If the interaction is disrupted and difficult conditions have been created, by the decision of the commander, the units and pairs break away from the enemy independently, using the sun, clouds and maneuvers that exclude the enemy's ability to conduct targeted fire.

§ 87. The best maneuver of separation from the enemy, providing mutual cover in pairs, is the scissors maneuver.

It provides continuous cover for each other against possible attacks from behind and movement in the desired direction.

On a signal from the leader, the steam maneuvers as shown in Fig. No. 9.

§ 88. The same maneuver can be used by a link, performing it in pairs. In all cases, if possible, fighters should use cut-off zones for separation from the enemy.

§ 89. If an air battle is being conducted by a sufficiently large group and the groups by the time of withdrawal from the battle have retained their places in the battle formation in height, then it is more expedient for the strike group to leave the battle first under cover of the covering group.

The exit from the battle of the covering group is covered by a pair (group) of the reserve (free maneuver), which, having the most favorable tactical conditions, then freely breaks away from the enemy, using superiority in height and excess in speed.

§ 90. The group leader must be the first to leave the battle in order to ensure an orderly exit from the battle for the entire group by his leadership. In some situations, the commander can leave the battle last, covering the exit from the battle with his pair (group) of other pairs (groups). When the commander leaves the battle, the control of the group will, as a rule, be less effective or even disrupted, since the commander will be busy fighting.

The enemy seeks to disable, first of all, the group commander and thereby deprive our group of control. Therefore, the commander should resort to the useless risk of being the last to leave the battle only when the current situation forces it to do so.

§ 91. Separation from the enemy by diving should be used as a last resort, given the good qualities of enemy aircraft in a dive. For the transition to a dive, it is necessary to choose a moment that would exclude the possibility of a quick transition of the enemy to pursuit or, in extreme cases, would complicate it.

If diving is carried out under threat of pursuit, it is necessary to avoid diving in a straight line, changing the angle and direction of the dive, making snakes, sliding, etc. Exit from a dive in a straight line should not be allowed, as this creates good conditions for striking the enemy.

§ 92. Exit from a battle with a bomber is not difficult and is reduced to an exit from an attack, since a bomber, while fighting a defensive nature, is not capable of holding down further actions of a fighter.

§ 93. The reasons for the withdrawal from a group battle of individuals may be: damage to the material part, limiting the possibility of conducting a battle and wounding the pilot. A pilot who has a need to withdraw from combat is obliged to report this to the commander with a prearranged signal. Such transfers cannot be made in plain text. The commander, who received the signal to withdraw from the battle, assesses the situation and decides to withdraw from the battle with the whole troupe (if it is small) or allocates an outfit to accompany the one leaving the battle to his territory or airfield.

§ 94. The use of ammunition or the malfunctioning of the weapon cannot serve as a reason for withdrawing from a group battle, since this changes the balance of forces in favor of the enemy and puts the leaving and the group in a dangerous position. Having reported this to the commander, the pilot is obliged to support his comrades in battle with the threat of attack.

IV. AIR COMBAT CONTROL

§ 95. In view of the fact that the speed of modern aircraft has increased significantly, the situation in air combat takes on a tense and rapidly changing character.

This greatly complicates the control of air combat, especially when a significant number of aircraft are involved, and increases the role of the commander in combat.

The commander is obliged to give the pilots exhaustive instructions on the ground and to think over their actions in the air so that the control of the battle is continuous and most effective.

Section 96. Prior to receiving a combat mission, the training of pilots for air combat consists in studying:

The ground situation (front lines, methods of interaction with their own FORA and areas of the enemy's FORE position, identification signals of their troops);

The air situation (actions of own aviation and the enemy's aviation on the route and in the area of \u200b\u200boperations);

Area of \u200b\u200boperation and meteorological conditions;

Region and cut-off zones;

Airfields and landing sites closest to the front line;

Locations of drive and direction-finding radio stations;

Locations of guidance stations, their call signs and the order of communication with them.

§ 97. Before departure, fighter pilots must know:

A combat mission, which contributes to a reasonable manifestation of initiative within the framework of the assigned mission and the ability to continue performing a combat mission if the commander fails:

Take-off order;

Location, altitude and collection procedure after take-off;

Flight route and profile;

Radio data (wave, call signs, radio signals and password);

Battle formation and its place in it;

Control signals and order of notification when enemy aircraft are detected;

Identification signals and signals of interaction with AF;

Outlined options for action (battle);

Assembly area, order of assembly and exit from the battle;

Return and Boarding Procedure. The pilots' excellent knowledge of the order of performing the assigned task and their actions under various options greatly facilitates the commander in controlling the battle.

Section 98. Air combat control is carried out:

Through continuous radio communication between the aircraft, as well as between the group commander, the command post radio station and guidance radio stations;

Continuous observation of the air enemy over the battlefield and on its territory.

§ 99. Air combat is controlled directly by the commander in the air. After the fighters are aimed at the enemy from the ground, the radio guidance station stops its work and resumes it only in case of the approach of fresh enemy forces or when there is a threat of a surprise attack.

§ 100. Excessive interference from the ground in the control of air combat leads to lack of initiative and irresponsibility of commanders in the air, and often disorientates them.

§ 101. The commander from the ground through the command radio station (command radio station or guidance radio station) carries out:

Calling fighters to build up forces;

Directs fighters to the enemy;

Introduces his reserve into battle;

Indicates methods of action for fighters, if necessary;

Makes his own adjustments to the actions of the commander in the air, if the latter makes tactical mistakes;

Has a moral impact on pilots who are fighting by rewarding or censure of their actions.

§ 102. The main means of controlling fighters in battle are radio and the personal example of the commander. To prevent provocative work of the enemy on the radio, the pilot must use the assigned password.

§ 103. Radio transmission on a combat mission is only allowed for the group leader. The slaves turn on their radio transmitters in the following cases:

Call by the group leader;

When an air enemy appears unnoticed by the group leader;

If necessary, exit from the battle.

§ 104. In order to achieve and maintain the greatest secrecy of the flight, it is necessary to resort to using the radio only in extreme cases.

§ 105. When searching for an enemy, the main means of communication between pilots in pairs (and even between pairs in a flight) should be signals of aircraft evolution. In addition, the slave in a pair must understand the commander by his behavior and not need unnecessary signals (commands).

§ 106. It is also advisable to produce information about the detected enemy by the evolution of the aircraft, since with a widely developed network of eavesdropping of the enemy, fighters using radio can be detected from the ground in time, and the enemy aircraft will be warned about this.

§ 107. In air combat, radio is the main and only means of control, especially when a significant number of aircraft are involved in the battle. The commander of the pair, controlling the wingman by radio in battle, also has the ability to transfer his will to the winged wingman by personal example and aircraft evolutions.

§ 108. The squadron (group) commander in battle controlled the flight commanders, coordinating the actions of the flights within the framework of the assigned task, and, as a rule, does not interfere with the flight management. The link must always be controlled by the link commander by transmitting commands and signals to the commander of the slave pair.

§ 109. In battle, the commander of a group (flight), giving a command, refers to the commander of a flight or a led pair by the last name in plain text and thereby orients the rest of the pilots about the decision.

§ 110. Radio discipline is an indispensable condition for the effective control of combat by radio. Observance of radio discipline during radio communications is an important responsibility of the pilot.

§ 111. The personal example of a commander is also an effective means of managing the actions of subordinates.

§ 112. The group commander is in battle formation where it is more convenient for him to control the group, and in the group that solves the main task. A commander in a battle is, first of all, an organizer, and secondly, a fighter. His main task is not to achieve personal success, but to organize the successful completion of the battle by the whole group as a whole. If the commander turns into an ordinary soldier in battle, then the group, as a rule, will find itself without control, which usually leads to unnecessary losses and the loss of the battle.

§ 113. During combat maneuvering, a 90-180 ° turn maneuver must be performed by sending the following radio commands:

team number 1-left (right) march-turn left (right) by 90 °;

team number 2-to the left (right) in a circle march-turn left (right) by 180 °;

team number 3-Fans march-turn by 180 ° like a fan;

team number 4- converging fan march-turn by 180 * converging fan.

§ 114. If the commander's radio fails, he must transfer control of the group to his deputy by signaling the evolutions of aircraft no. 5 or control the group using signals given by the evolutions of the aircraft.

The following signals are mandatory for all fighter aircraft:

signal number 1- "enemy in the direction" - swinging from wing to wing, then a turn or turn in the direction of the enemy;

signal number 2- "We attack everything" - quick swinging from wing to wing and a personal example of the commander;

signal number 3- "attacking the leading pair (link)" - rapid swinging from wing to wing, then a slide;

signal No. 4- "closing pairs (links) attack" - two slides;

signal number 5- "I am out of order, the deputy will take command" - swinging from wing to wing, then diving with going under the line;

signal number 6- "act on your own" - swinging from wing to wing, then a snake in a horizontal plane;

signal No. 7- "collection" - deep multiple rocking from wing to wing.

§ 115. Signal data may be supplemented by others, but the meaning of the above signals should not be changed. Signals are given before being repeated by subordinates.

The signals given by the leader of the pair refer to the slave, by the flight commander to the leader of the led pair, etc.

Signal number 1 is repeated only after the enemy is detected. When meeting with a mixed enemy group, signal No. 4 means: "Attack enemy cover fighters."

V. SINGLE AIR COMBAT

§ 116. The experience of war has shown that a single air battle rarely takes place.

He might be:

During actions of a fighter associated with the flight of a single aircraft (separation from the group, reconnaissance in bad weather, loss of a partner, etc.);

In the air defense system when fighting single bombers (reconnaissance aircraft) at night and during the day;

In the course of a group battle, when the group disintegrated, the interaction was disrupted and the fighter was forced to act independently in isolation from its other aircraft.

A single air battle should be considered only as the basis for the success of a group air battle, since the success of a group air battle depends on the ability of each pilot of the group to conduct a tactically competent battle separately in close cooperation with other fighters.

The basis of a group battle is a pair, like a firing unit, but the success of a pair's action depends on the preparedness of each pilot individually, his ability to competently conduct a battle in close cooperation with a partner.

Section 117. Single-seat fighter attack from above from behind is one of the main ones, it gives the greatest effect and usually ends with the destruction of the enemy. To carry out this attack, it is necessary to occupy an excess of 800-1,000 meters over the enemy.

Dive entry should be made while sighting the enemy at an angle of 45 °. If the entry into a dive is made at a speed of 500 km / h, then the duration of the dive will be 8-9 seconds.

When opening fire from a distance of 150 meters and stopping it at a distance of 50 meters, the firing time will be about 1.5 seconds.

Aiming must be done with a lead of 105 thousand, which ensures hitting vulnerable spots (engine, gas tanks, pilot). The exit from the attack must be done upward at an angle of 50-60 ° to the side with a lapel of 30-45 °, without losing sight of the enemy (see Fig. No. 10).

Positive aspects of the attack:

Possibility of rapid convergence due to the presence of excess, which contributes to the achievement of surprise;

The ability to go up after an attack to take an advantageous starting position;

Convenience and simplicity of its implementation;

Lack of fire resistance from the enemy.

Disadvantages of the attack:

The transience of being in a firing position;

With an increase in the dive angle, the angular lead increases.

Section 118. A single-seat fighter attack from behind from below after a dive with access to the firing position at an angle of 15-20 °.

To carry out the attack, you must take the starting position 800 meters higher. Dive entry should be made at the time of sighting the enemy at an angle of 30 °.

Start diving at enemy altitude. If the entry into the dive is made at a speed of 400-450 km / h, then at the moment of withdrawal from the dive it will be equal to 550-600 km / h. If the withdrawal from the dive is started at a distance of 600 meters, then the distance to the enemy after the withdrawal from the dive will be 300 meters and the decrease will be 150-200 meters. If the pilot makes a rough aim and accurate aiming in two seconds, then he has a time equal to 3 seconds for firing (when opening fire from a distance of 150 meters and ceasing fire at a distance of 50 meters). Aiming must be done with a lead of 105 thousand.

During this time, the fighter can fire two long bursts at the enemy. Exit the attack by going upward at an angle of up to 60 ° in the opposite direction of the attack with a turn towards the enemy, without losing sight of him (see Fig. No. 11).

Positive aspects of the attack the same as when attacking from behind from above, but the convenience of firing and the duration of being in a firing position is significantly increased.

The disadvantage of this attack is that it is difficult to execute. To make an attack correctly, it is necessary to take into account: the excess, the distance to the enemy and the ratio of speeds.

Major mistakes can be:

Diving too far from the enemy, which leads to a loss of speed in pursuit and the inability to go up;

Diving too close to the enemy - transience or even impossibility of firing;

Late exit from the attack and with a low angle - the possibility of exposing your aircraft to an enemy strike.

Section 119. Frontal attack on a single-seat fighter, from the point of view of defeating the enemy, is not very effective. It can take place: when openly approaching the target of the battle, during the battle. Frontal attack is a test of the moral qualities of a fighter pilot. The winner is the one who calmly and persistently brings it to the end.

Disadvantages of the attack:

The presence of enemy fire resistance;

Small affected area;

The transience of the attack, opening fire from increased distances and stopping it at advantageous distances (200 m);

Impossibility of rapid repetition of the attack

Possible enemy maneuver after a frontal attack: going up a hill, going down with a dive, switching to a horizontal maneuver (see Fig. No. 12).

When the enemy moves up the hill, it is necessary to make an energetic 180 ° turn with the maximum climb, without losing sight of the enemy.

So when performing a frontal attack at a speed of 500 km / h. the distance to the enemy after the turn will be about 900-1000 m, while our fighter will be 300 meters lower (position No. 1).

When the enemy leaves, a slide can also be performed with a subsequent separation from the enemy and the renewal of the attack on a collision course.

When the enemy goes down with a dive, pursuit is advisable, especially when there is an advantage in speed. If there is no superiority in speed, it is more profitable to make a maneuver with a climb without losing sight of the enemy (position No. 2).

Section 120. Attack of a single He-111, Ju-88 bomber from the front from the top from the side.

A feature of this type of bombers is the presence of all-round fire protection and the almost complete absence of dead sectors of fire, especially from the rear hemisphere. In the front hemisphere on top, there is a rather significant dead sector of fire, which can be used when attacking from the front from above from the side at an angle of 45 ° with a 2/4 angle. Fire must be opened from a distance of 400 m and stopped at a distance of 150-200 m. In this case, it is necessary to take 210 thous.

It is better to exit the attack by slipping over the bomber in the opposite direction of the attack to the lift-off, followed by a climb and turn towards the enemy's flight (see Fig. 13).

Positive aspects of the attack:

The attack is carried out outside the enemy's fire resistance;

Large target area affected;

Firing at unprotected vulnerabilities (engines, crew, gas tanks).

Disadvantages of the attack:

The difficulty of aiming and firing, increasing with an increase in the dive angle and foreshortening;

The transience of the attack.

Section 121. Attack of a single bomber type He-111 and Ju-88 from the front side at the same height.

When it is executed on the Xe-111 with an angle of 1/4 - 2/4 and on the Yu-88 with an angle of 2/4, there is no enemy fire resistance.

Fire must be opened from a distance of 400 m and stopped at a distance of 150-200 m, the correction at the moment of opening fire must be taken at an angle of 2 / 4-140 thousand.

The exit from the attack must be made by slipping under the bomber with an exit to the opposite side of the attack, separation from the range of the shooters' fire, followed by a turn towards the enemy's flight (see Fig. No. 14).

Positive aspects of the attack:

Increased target area;

Lack of fire resistance;

The exit from the attack provides minimal fire resistance from the rear shooters, which is ensured by a quick separation from the enemy.

Disadvantages of the attack:

Shading (partial) of the cab by the motor;

The affected area is less than when attacking from the front from above from the side;

The transience of the attack and the presence of amendments that make it difficult to fire.

Section 122. Attack of a single bomber type He-111 and Ju-88 directly from the front from below is not very effective and can be used only in the absence of a choice of direction of attack (see Fig. No. 15).

In this case, it is necessary to take a lead of 140 thousand.

Disadvantages of the attack:

The attack is carried out in the firing sector of the front lower gunner;

Difficult conditions of exit from the attack, the fighter becomes a convenient target for the shooter;

Loss of speed by the end of the attack and the inability to quickly repeat it;

The transience of the attack and the difficulty of firing.

§ 123. Attack of a single He-111 and Ju-88 type bomber from behind at the same height can take place when catching up with the enemy or when the enemy, as a result of flight or battle, is ahead of the fighter.

In the process of approaching, if the attacker is detected, it is necessary to maneuver until reaching the firing position in order to prevent the shooter from conducting aimed fire.

At the moment of approach and maneuver, it is necessary to suppress the fire resistance of the shooter with short aiming bursts and, as they approach, transfer fire with medium and long bursts at vulnerable spots up to a distance of 100-50 m.

Having reached the firing position, the fighter must stop any maneuver and conduct aimed fire until the enemy is completely destroyed. The exit from the attack can be in two directions:

If the fighter has a sufficient reserve of speed, obtained due to the preliminary dive, then the exit from the attack must be made by slipping from above the bomber; the separation from the enemy must be made by turning to the side, with a climb, followed by a maneuver to take up a new starting position (see Fig. 16).

If there is no speed reserve or it is small, then the exit from the attack must be made by slipping under the bomber with a turn to the side to break away from the enemy, followed by a climb (see Fig. No. 17).

Positive aspects of the attack:

There is almost no angular movement of the target in the sight, which makes aiming and firing easier;

Long stay at the firing position;

Disadvantages of the attack:

Small target projection;

The fighter does not have angular movement in the gunner's sight and is for a long time in the firing sector, which makes it easier for the gunner to conduct aimed fire.

Section 124. Attack of the aircraft type Ju-87 from behind from below from the side under the angle 2/4 can be applied both for a single aircraft and for a group. It is very important for a fighter to have a sufficient speed reserve in order to be able to quickly approach the enemy and not be without speed at the moment of exiting the attack. The speed of the attack excludes the possibility of the enemy maneuvering and providing the shooter with the opportunity to fire. Fire must be opened from short distances, conducted along vulnerable spots of the aircraft up to a distance of 50 m. The correction at the time of opening fire is 60 thousand.

The exit from the attack must be made by slipping in the opposite direction of the attack with a turn towards the enemy and descent to gain speed, followed by a climb for a second attack (see Fig. No. 18).

Positive aspects of the attack:

Lack of fire resistance; the possibility of achieving surprise in the attack, since this direction is poorly visible by the enemy;

Large target projection;

Ease of implementation.

The disadvantage of an attack is the possibility of losing speed by the time you exit the attack, a large loss of altitude to gain speed, which increases the time between attacks.

Section 125. FV-189 attack from behind from the side at the same height.

The peculiarity of the FV-189 aircraft is its good maneuverability, which makes it difficult to fight it. It is better to attack him from behind from the side at the same height at an angle of 45 °. Open fire from a distance of 150 m. At a distance of 50-25 m it is necessary to aim at the bushing of the near motor (see Fig. No. 19).

The exit from the attack must be made at the height of the enemy by turning in the direction of the attack, followed by separation from the enemy and taking the starting position for a repeated attack, if the enemy is not shot down.

The advantage of such an attack is that the attacker, having good conditions for firing, is closed by the near beam from the rear gunner's fire at the moment of the attack and when leaving it.

§ 126. Assessing attacks from the front hemisphere, one can note their common disadvantages:

The short duration of being at a firing position; attacks are fleeting and require high fire skills;

The impossibility of a quick repetition of the attack due to separation from the enemy; often a second attack is preceded by an enemy surge.

The most effective attack from the front hemisphere is a front-top-side attack from a 1 / 4-2 / \u200b\u200b4 angle.

§ 127. Attacks from the rear hemisphere are more profitable and usually end in the destruction of the enemy.

Modern bombers have almost no dead cones of fire from the rear hemisphere, so that attacks from this direction, as a rule, take place in the firing sector. Therefore, the decisive factor in attacks from the rear hemisphere is the surprise of the attack. If surprise is achieved, fire must be opened from close range and carried out until the enemy is completely destroyed. If surprise is excluded and the enemy provides fire resistance, then it is necessary to destroy the shooter from increased distances with short aiming bursts and, as they approach, transfer the fire to the vulnerable spots of the aircraft to defeat.

If the enemy needs to be attacked immediately, then the shooter's fire should not serve as an obstacle, since the fighter has more powerful weapons and fire superiority is always on his side.

The best attacks from the rear hemisphere on aircraft such as He-111, Ju-88 will be: attack from behind at the same height at small angles, and when attacking by a pair, attack simultaneously from different directions from above from behind in the sector of the upper rear gunner.

For aircraft such as Ju-87, ME-110, the best attack from the rear hemisphere is an attack from behind from below from the side.

For single-seat fighters such as ME-109, FV-190, an attack from behind from above from a small angle and an attack from behind from below after a dive.

§ 128. Analyzing advantageous and disadvantageous directions of attacks, one should take into account that not always a fighter has the ability to choose a direction of attack. Therefore, conducting offensive operations, a fighter must be able to attack and destroy the enemy from any direction and position in which the enemy is detected or found himself in the process of battle. The ability to hit the enemy from increased distances, for sure, is of particular importance.

§ 129. Above was considered, in the main, only the first attack, the beginning of air combat. If the enemy is not destroyed during the first attack, then it is the beginning of a whole series of maneuvers until one of the opponents manages to take an advantageous firing position, providing accurate fire that destroys the enemy. It is impossible to foresee what provisions can be created and how to act in these provisions. One can only imagine the variety of positions in the dynamics of combat, where the pilot's actions depend on the actions and behavior of the enemy, his personal qualities and ingenuity.

The winner in battle is the one who surpasses his opponent in the skill of aerobatics and fire, quickness and decisiveness of actions, composure and confidence in his superiority.

§; 130. The general rules to be followed in combat are as follows:

It is necessary to carry out such evolutions in battle that are not only unexpected for the enemy, but also make it possible to forestall the enemy in taking an advantageous starting position for an attack and exclude the enemy's ability to use his fire;

It is necessary to make such evolutions that are easy for your aircraft and difficult for the enemy aircraft, which is ensured by knowing the tactical flight capabilities of the enemy aircraft and comparing them with your capabilities:

To carry out an attack taking into account the safety of exit from it and the possibility of its rapid repetition;

In battle, use the sun extensively: it is better to make attacks from the direction of the sun and leave them in the sun. This makes it possible to achieve surprise in the first attack, and during the battle make it difficult for the enemy to fire and be out of sight of the enemy. Finishing the maneuver, you must strive to have the sun behind you, and the enemy in front of you;

Do not lose sight of the enemy during the entire battle; an invisible enemy threatens defeat, since he can take a position that gives him the opportunity to defeat with fire;

Lead only an offensive battle, keep the initiative in your hands. In battle there is a struggle for seizing the initiative. It is easy to give it away, but to take it back is much more difficult, and sometimes impossible;

Fight vertically at high speeds using the full high qualities of your aircraft. This makes it possible to drag the enemy to unfavorable heights for him, put him in unfavorable conditions, impose his will on him and force him to lose the battle;

Fighting at a high-speed pace, at high speeds, the fighter pilot must know and remember that in some cases it is advantageous to have a low speed to destroy the enemy; the cancellation of speed and its equalization with the speed of the enemy can take place when the surprise of the attack is achieved, and there is no threat of attack from the enemy at the moment (especially when attacking a bomber). This greatly increases the effectiveness of fire and makes it possible to destroy the enemy with the first attack;

Do not stop the fight first, if the situation allows. If the enemy does not accept the battle or tries to get out of it, by decisive actions do not give him the opportunity to leave unharmed;

Do not make unnecessary sharp evolutions: this is associated with a loss of speed and the creation of unnecessary overloads;

If the fighter finds itself in the attacked position, it is necessary to immediately get out of the attack by a maneuver that provides the possibility of going over to the offensive. The best way to get out of the blow is to make a sharp turn with a slide towards the enemy and under him or up;

Correct and quick assessment of the air situation, quick decision-making and actions, elimination of errors in combat and the use of enemy errors, the desire to destroy the enemy, as a rule, bring victory in battle.

§ 131. A maneuver in aerial combat is all changes in the direction of flight in combat, in the vertical and horizontal planes, with the help of which:

The suddenness of the first attack;

Exit to the firing position;

Exit from the attack;

Getting out of the blow;

Exit the battle.

§ 132. A vertical maneuver in battle is called all changes of direction in the vertical plane (steep dive, slide, candles, etc.).

The widespread use of vertical maneuvers in combat and the presence of superiority in altitude makes it possible to seize the initiative of the attack and provide our fighters with the necessary speed reserve, which makes it possible to successfully conduct a battle and freely exit it even if the enemy is outnumbered.

Vertical maneuver combined with powerful fighter fire provides tremendous opportunities for offensive actions and successful completion of the battle.

§ 133. A horizontal maneuver in battle is called all changes of direction in the horizontal plane (turns, turns, etc.).

A horizontal maneuver is a defensive maneuver; it does not make it possible to fully use the qualities and capabilities of a modern high-speed fighter.

§ 134. Counter-maneuver in combat — a maneuver of the defender with the aim of violating the attacker's firing position, in order to prevent him from conducting aimed fire.

If the attacked counter-maneuver is the beginning of the transition to the offensive, then such a counter-maneuver turns into a counterattack.

In air combat there are continuous transitions from maneuvers to counter-maneuvers, attacks to counterattacks.

§ 135. Enemy fighters, if their actions are not connected by the situation, build their tactics of action, proceeding from the following principles:

They enter the battle only if they have superiority in height:

They attack when the conditions for a surprise attack and favorable conditions for exit from the attack are provided. To this end, enemy fighters patiently and skillfully use the sun, cloud cover and the speed of approach:

They engage in battle with equal or superior forces only from clearly advantageous positions and in those cases when there are additional forces somewhere nearby;

They prefer short-term combat, limiting themselves to one or two, less often three, attacks, after which they usually leave the battle and resume it, having achieved tactical advantages.

§ 136. Features of tactics of actions of fighters of the ME-109 type are derived from the properties of the aircraft: fighters of this type of attack are made from the upper rear hemisphere with a steep slope upward, usually ending a hill with a turn of 90-180 ° or a bend. They prefer to fight at altitudes of 5000-8000 m. Where they have the greatest tactical flight qualities. Exit from under the blow is made by sliding, turning, diving, sliding, sometimes by a coup or some other figure. They do not prefer frontal attacks and, as a rule, cannot withstand them. The battle is fought, as a rule, in a vertical plane.

§ 137. The peculiarities of the tactics of actions of fighters of the FV-190 type consist in actions based on the principle of short, surprise attacks against individual detached aircraft. They attack more readily when they have superiority in altitude, gaining the missing speed on a dive.

Having better horizontal maneuverability compared to vertical, they often switch to horizontal combat. Frontal attacks are made more often and accepted more readily, using powerful weapons. To get out of the impact, they often resort to diving and flipping over the wing. The coup is an opportune moment to defeat him. The enemy often uses combined groups with FV-190 aircraft in the lower tiers and ME-109 aircraft in the upper tiers.

§ 138. FV-190 fighter is one of the main types and has a number of modifications. Its last modification is the FV-190A-8, which is used as a fighter (4-point, armed with 2 synchronous 13-mm machine guns and 2 synchronous 20-mm cannons) and as an attack aircraft (6-point, which, in addition to the above weapons, has 2 wing 30 mm cannon).

Despite the fact that the FV-190-A-8 (equipped with a BMW-801 engine that allows continuous forcing for 10 minutes) has significantly increased flight data, our production fighters successfully fight with it, having a significant quality superiority.

§ 139. The Yak-3 fighter has a significant advantage over the FV-190A-8 in maneuverability and climb rate and is only slightly inferior in maximum speed at the ground when forcing the engine on the FV-190A-8 aircraft, which gives it the ability to evade pursuit.

In a bend battle (both on the right and on the left), the Yak-3 enters the tail of the FV-190A-8 at a distance of actual fire through 1.5-2 bends.

In the vertical plane, the Yak-3 easily maintains its superiority in height over the FV-190A-8, which makes it possible to seize the battle initiative and forestall it in an attack from advantageous positions.

On a dive, the Yak-3 picks up speed faster than the FV-190A-8, which makes it possible to attack it both on a dive and at the exit from it. It should be borne in mind that the Yak-3 picks up speed faster and surpasses the FV-190A-8 at the beginning of the dive at lower speeds. At high speeds, the increase in speed is slower, therefore it is easier to catch up with the FV-190A-8 at the beginning of the dive, when it has not yet gained high speed.

§ 140. The LA-7 fighter also has a significant superiority over the FV-190A-8 both in maximum speed (especially when boosting the engine) and climb rate. and in maneuverability in vertical and horizontal planes.

On left and right bends, the LA-7 enters the tail of the FV-190A-8 at a distance of actual fire through 2-2.5 bends.

In vertical combat, the LA-7 must use its superiority in speed and climb rate to seize the battle initiative. If by the beginning of the battle the speed of the FV-190A-8 turns out to be greater than that of the LA-7, then it is much more difficult to take an advantageous position for the attack, since the FV-190A-8 quickly goes down to a descent from the top point of the climb, which gives it the opportunity to forestall the aircraft -7 in attack or evade attack.

The LA-7 dives better, picks up speed faster, which makes it possible to attack the FV-190A-8 both in a dive and at the exit from it.

Having superiority in maximum horizontal speed, the LA-7 (forcing the engine) freely overtakes the FV-190A-8 in a straight line.

Vi. PAIR BATTLE

§ 141. The pair is a firing unit, forms the basis for the formation of battle formations in fighter aircraft and the organization of interaction in group air combat.

The striking force of the pair is sufficient to destroy single enemy aircraft. In a favorable tactical situation, a couple can successfully fight small groups and suddenly attack large groups of enemy aircraft.

§ 142. The para is indivisible. Returning partners from a combat flight one by one is a crime. The separation of the follower from the leader, the desire to act independently puts the leader and the follower in a dangerous position and, as a rule, leads to death. When performing a maneuver, the leader must take into account the capabilities of the follower; the slave must always have a reserve of speed, which ensures the possibility of maintaining his place in the battle formation.

§ 143. The success of a couple's fight depends on the couple's harmony, the presence of continuous effective fire interaction, mutual understanding and trust.

§ 144. High military and flight discipline, a sense of responsibility for a comrade in battle, mutual assistance up to self-sacrifice are factors that ensure the success of actions as part of a pair.

§ 145. Flying together in a pair must be worked out so that the pilots, without giving each other command signals, could understand it by the evolution of their partner's aircraft and build the correct maneuver.

§ 146. The harmony of a couple is ensured by the constancy and voluntariness of matching it. A non-flying pair is not capable of successfully completing combat missions.

§ 147. High tactical literacy, knowledge of the tactics of actions of their fighters and enemy aircraft is a necessary condition for victory. Each new variant (reception) air combat should be carefully studied on the ground, practiced in the air and imposed on the enemy unexpectedly for him.

§ 148. The steam performs all flights on a combat mission in battle formations.

The battle formation is the arrangement of aircraft in groups and the mutual placement of groups in the air, determined by the instructions of the commander.

§ 149. The formation of a pair must meet the following requirements:

Be flexible in control and easy to save in battle;

To distract a minimum of the attention of pilots from observing the air and searching for the enemy;

Allow free maneuver in the horizontal and vertical plane;

Provide fire interaction between aircraft.

§ 150. The steam performs combat missions in battle formations "Front" and "Peleng" (see Fig. No. 20).

Battle formation "Front" (right, left):

Interval 150-200 m;

Distance 10-50 m.

The planes fly at the same altitude or with a slight excess of the wingman (5-50 m).

§ 151. The battle formation "front" provides the most complete view of the airspace in pairs and is used when following to carry out combat missions and when attacking large groups of enemy aircraft, when the threat of attack from enemy fighters is excluded.

§ 152. Battle formation "bearing" (right and left):

interval 25-100 m;

distance 150-200 m.

Battle order "Bearing" is applied before an attack (battle) at the signal of the commander of the pair. The side of the bearing is determined based on the size of the target, its location, the enemy's probable maneuver, the direction of attack and exit from it. In the course of the attack, the slave, based on the current situation, can independently change the direction of the bearing.

§ 153. Combat formations of a pair make it possible, without disturbing them, to change the direction of flight by 90 and 180 ° in a minimum time equal to the turn of a single aircraft. When the leader of the pair changes direction, the follower, following the shortest path, cuts corners and goes to the other side.

§ 154. A turn on the 90th is performed by the command "left (right) march". When turning towards the follower, the leader makes a turn with some climb; the slave passes under the master. When the follower is at the level of the leader, he rolls in the direction of the U-turn and, as he climbs, takes his place on the other side.

When turning to the leader, the follower cuts off the corner and, due to the greater roll, takes his place.

§ 155. A turn by 180 ° is made on the command “to the left (to the right) march around - according to the principle“ all suddenly ”; each of the pilots independently turns in the same direction, according to the command. As a result of the turn, the follower will be on the other side of the leader (see fig. No. 21).

§ 156. The pair attacks simultaneously or in succession, covering each other. Follower actions should always be dictated by the leader's behavior. An independent attack by the follower is possible only in cases where delay threatens the danger of an attack from the enemy

§ 157. A simultaneous attack by a bunk of a single He-111 and Yu-88 bomber from behind from above at an angle of 1 / 4-2 / \u200b\u200b4 from different directions in the sector of the rear upper arrow is the most effective and ends, as a rule, with the destruction of the enemy. It is better to carry out an attack with an excess of 600-800 m; the transition to a dive should be started when sighting the enemy at an angle of 45 ° with an initial angle of up to 60 °.

At the moment of the leader's transition to the attack, the slave, increasing the distance to 100 m, simultaneously switches to the attack from the other side. It is more advantageous to exit the attack by slipping one under the bomber and the other over the bomber in the opposite direction of the attack, to break away from the enemy beyond the limits of his actual fire, followed by a climb maneuver to take up the starting position for a second attack. (See fig. No. 22).

The attack is applied when there is no threat from enemy fighters.

Positive aspects of the attack:

The ability to fire up to extremely close distances;

Large affected area;

The shooter's fire is dispersed, one of the attackers is out of fire resistance;

The ability to quickly repeat the attack.

The disadvantages of this attack are:

Difficulty getting out of the attack;

The presence of fire resistance.

Section 158. Consecutive attack of a single bomber by one under cover the other is used when there is a threat from enemy fighters or when there is uncertainty about their absence. When the leader moves into the attack, the slave, remaining at the same altitude of 400-600 m, strenuously observes the air, follows the leader, being in a position that provides the ability to repel the attack in front of the leader and the possibility of switching to the attack if the enemy is not destroyed.

Leading, leaving the attack, takes the position of the follower and covers his attack. (See fig. No. 23).

The exit from the attack must be made by slipping in the opposite direction of the attack upward, breaking away from the enemy and then turning towards the enemy. The order of execution of the attack is the same as for a single fighter attack with a single bomber.

Section 159. Simultaneous attack by a pair of enemy fighters from behind from above under the angle 0 / 4-1 / 4 can be in the presence of excess over the enemy and the absence of an immediate threat from enemy fighters.

If a pair of enemy fighters is in the left bearing at the time of the attack, it is more convenient to attack with the right bearing. (See fig. No. 24).

The order of execution of the attack is the same as for a single fighter attack. The quality of the attack, its advantages and disadvantages are the same as when attacking with a single fighter.

Section 160. Consecutive attack by one under the cover of another one of a pair of enemy fighters It is used in cases where there is a need for cover associated with the threat of an attack, or when the enemy as a result of an attack may be in a better position to retaliate. (See fig. No. 25).

The order of attack is the same as for a single fighter attack from behind from above.

Section 161. Simultaneous attack by a pair of enemy fighters from behind from below after diving applies in the same cases as a rear-top attack. (See fig. No. 26).

The starting position, the order of execution, its advantages and disadvantages are the same as when attacking a single fighter.

Section 162. Attack by a pair from one direction of a flight (small group) of bombers from behind from above from the side under a 2/4 angle with firing at one or two enemy aircraft, it is performed with an excess of 800-1000 m; dive entry with an initial angle of up to 60 ° at the time of sighting the enemy at an angle of 30 °.

The commander of the pair, turning on the enemy, goes into the attack on the leader (wingman), the wingman, increasing the distance to 100 m, goes over to the attack on the closest wingman or the leading enemy aircraft (See Fig. No. 27).

The exit from the attack must be made by slipping over the enemy in the direction opposite to the attack, taking off, followed by an upward maneuver to take the starting position for a second attack.

§ 163. The commander of a pair, who has decided to attack a numerically superior enemy group, must achieve tactical advantages over the enemy: surprise and overrun; the attack must be carried out quickly, taking into account the possibility of its rapid repetition or separation from the enemy.

Vii. FIGHT RING

§ 164. A link consisting of two pairs is the smallest tactical unit most convenient for independent operations against small enemy groups.

§ 165. The actions of the couples must be based on clear fire interaction. The lead pair must build their maneuver in accordance with the maneuver of the lead pair. An independent attack of the led pair can only be in those cases when delay threatens the success of the link's actions.

§ 166. Pairs in a flight operate on the same principles as single aircraft in a pair: cover the attack of one of the pairs, build up the strike.

§ 167. If a successful attack of one pair is sufficient to destroy the opponent, then the other pair does not enter the battle, but covers the actions of the attacking pair from the attacks of the opponent.

If there is no threat of attack from the opponent's side, the covering pair also makes attacks, correlating their actions with the actions of the other pair.

§ 168. The battle formation of the link must ensure visual communication and the possibility of interaction between pairs. The commander builds a battle formation based on weather conditions, air conditions and assigned tasks.

§ 169. When flying on a combat mission, the flight follows in the front order, the interval between pairs is 200-400 m; distance 50-100 m. (See fig. No. 28).

The separation of pairs in height can reach 300-500 m. In the presence of the sun, it is advantageous to place the covering pair from the side opposite to the sun.

§ 170. In the presence of overcast clouds, the link walks at the same height and the lower edge of the cloud, periodically descending to view the airspace under the clouds.

§ 171. Before the battle, the flight takes on the "Peleng" battle formation on the command "attack, cover" or "attack, cover".

Distance between pairs 200-400 m.

Interval 50-100 m (see fig. No. 29).

This order of battle makes it possible to secure the attacking pair from possible attacks from the enemy.

§ 172. The battle formations of a link make it possible to freely maneuver in the vertical and horizontal plane. The flight can change direction by 90 and 180 ° in a minimum time equal to the turn of a single aircraft.

§ 173. A turn by 90 ° is performed by the command "to the left (right) march". If the turn must be made in the shortest possible time, then the link, as a result of the turn, is rebuilt into a reverse acute bearing of the pairs (see Fig. No. 30).

In this case, the pairs make a U-turn at their own heights, and the Leaders in pairs with a decrease, cutting off the turning angles if the U-turn is made towards the Leader.

§ 174. If there is no need to make a 90 ° turn in the minimum time, the flight commander makes a turn with a slightly reduced roll so that the driven and driven pair with a large roll and a smaller radius will take the battle formation after the turn, as shown in Fig. No. 31.

The turn in the direction of the driven or driven pair differs in that the leading ones perform the turn with some excess, and the driven ones pass the iodine by the leading ones.

§ 175. A 180 ° turn on the principle of "all at once" is performed by the command "to the left (right) all around the march".

Moreover, each aircraft turns independently, as shown in Fig. No. 32.

§ 176. If it is necessary to quickly change direction by 180 ° in order to strike at the enemy simultaneously from two directions, the turn is performed in a fan of pairs at the command “fan march” (see Fig. N ° 33).

§ 177. If it is necessary to quickly change direction by 180 ° to repel an enemy attack from the rear hemisphere to

one of the pairs (or even both) should be turned in a converging fan of pairs, as shown in Fig. No. 34.

§ 178. When searching for the enemy and covering ground targets (troops), the flight moves at different speeds, changing the height. In the direction of poorly visible airspace (sun, haze, etc.), the link goes with a climb at a lower speed, and from poorly visible airspace with a decrease at an increased speed.

§ 179. The squad may make the following attacks:

Covering the enemy and striking from both sides;

Attack by a link simultaneously from one direction;

Consecutively in pairs from one or two directions.

§ 180. The flight commander chooses the method and direction of the attack based on the current air situation. The attack must be made with courage and determination. The first attack must strive to withdraw the largest number of enemy aircraft, demoralize him.

In all cases of a meeting with an air enemy, the flight commander is obliged to report to the command post, indicating the area, altitude, type and forces of the enemy.

§ 181. When attacking a small group of bombers and there is a threat from enemy fighters, the leading pair strikes at the bombers, and the driven pair ensures its actions by cutting off the enemy fighters, without breaking away from the strike group, and, if possible, itself attacks the enemy sequentially, as shown in fig. No. 35.

§ 182. A simultaneous attack by a flight on large groups of bombers can take place when operating as part of a squadron or in the absence of a threat from enemy fighters, striking one or two bombers from the front top side, as shown in fig. No. 36.

§ 183. The repetition of the attack must follow in a minimum interval of time from the rear hemisphere from above to the side, as shown in fig. No. 37.

§ 184. When attacking from the front from the top to the side and from the back from the top from the side, the exit from the attack must be made by overshooting the bombers for a lift-off, followed by a climb to re-attack.

§ 185. When attacking enemy fighters, it is necessary to strive to destroy first the trailing pair, aircraft located above or on the flanks.

§ 186. If one of the pairs is attacked, she must make such a maneuver that would facilitate the second pair in the minimum time to repel the attack.

§ 187. If a flight was attacked simultaneously, then the steam maneuver should be based on the possibility of mutual reflection of the enemy, and the maneuver of each aircraft must prevent the possibility of being isolated from the group.

§ 188. When meeting enemy fighters head-on, the attack must be carried out persistently and daringly, without making the first turn.

§ 189. For the successful fulfillment of a combat mission and an excellent understanding by pilots of their duties in battle, the flight commander must play the entire flight before each sortie: from the organization of takeoff to landing in all its details and variants of the air situation. The flight commander personally prepares each pilot for combat missions and bears full responsibility for training.

§ 190. Tactical and fire interaction between pairs in a flight, mutual cover and gain, coordination and precision in actions are the basis of success in battle even with numerically superior enemy forces.

VIII. FIGHT ESCADRILLA

§ 191. A squadron, a tactical unit of fighters, is the most convenient unit for independent action.

§ 192. Combat as part of a squadron is based on fire interaction between units (groups), the actions of which are coordinated by the squadron commander. The actions of pairs and flights in the squadron are based on the principles set forth in the sections "Combat a pair" and "Combat a flight".

§ 193. Before a combat sortie, the squadron commander, on the basis of a thorough study of the air situation and the assigned mission, must build battle formations and distribute forces so as to engage in battle in favorable conditions for himself.

§ 194. In the course of flight and battle, as the air situation changes, the squadron commander makes changes in the battle formations so that the latter ensure the successful fulfillment of the assigned task.

§ 195. Air combat of a squadron must be conducted in echeloned combat formations. The battle formation of a squadron should be built of three groups:

Strike group;

Cover groups;

Free maneuver (reserve) groups

§ 196. The purpose of the strike group is to strike at the main forces of the enemy.

Cover group assignment:

Support for the strike group from the attack of enemy fighters;

Strike force support;

Destruction of troupes and individual enemy aircraft leaving the battle;

Cover for the gathering and exit of the strike group from the battle.

§ 197. From the composition of the covering group, it is necessary to allocate a pair of free maneuvers (reserve), consisting of the most trained pilots.

§ 198. A pair of free maneuver (reserve), being above the cover group and in more favorable conditions, performs the tasks of the reserve and protection; Following the course of the battle, it destroys individual detached enemy aircraft, fetters the enemy's maneuver in the vertical plane and assists the covering group with decisive attacks from above, warns its main forces about the approach of fresh enemy forces, and fetters them in battle.

§ 199. When meeting enemy bombers covered by small forces of fighters, the strike group can be reinforced by a cover group, and in the absence of enemy fighters, the cover group can be completely re-targeted to strike the bombers.

§ 200. If, due to the current situation, the strike group is unable to strike at the enemy, then the covering group, striking the enemy, takes on the role of the strike group. The strike group is gaining height and acts as a cover group.

§ 201. The success of a battle in a squadron depends on:

Perfectly organized and continuous management;

Clear interaction between links (groups);

Squadron confusion and quality of pilot training.

AERIAL COMBAT WHEN CLEANING THE AREA OF BOMBER OPERATIONS FROM OPPONENT'S FIGHTERS

§ 202. Air combat between a squadron of fighters and a group of enemy fighters when clearing the area of \u200b\u200boperations of bombers should be organized on the following principles (option):

Situation:

The task of our fighters is to clear the area of \u200b\u200boperations of their bombers from enemy fighters;

The balance of forces is equal;

The beginning of an air battle with a slight excess of our squadron;

The battle formation of our squadron is the right bearing of the groups;

The battle formation of the enemy is the left bearing of the groups.

§ 203. The battle formation of the sides before the attack (see fig. No. 38).

The battle formation of our squadron consists of:

Strike group:

Cover groups;

Pairs of free maneuver (reserve).

The strike group consists of 6 aircraft.

The cover group is made up of a link that follows 400 meters behind at an interval of 400 meters in the direction opposite to the sun With an excess of 800 meters. This arrangement of the cover group provides freedom of maneuver and convenient observation of the strike group. Angle of sight 45 °.

A pair of free maneuver (reserve) goes 500 meters behind and in excess of 1000 meters. The battle formation of units in the battle formation of the squadron is built for the convenience of finding the enemy. When enemy aircraft are detected, the units take up the battle formation for the attack.

The squadron leader is in the cover group.

The battle formation of the enemy group is built similarly to the battle formation of our squadron, with the only difference that the planes in pairs are located in an extended bearing with an excess of up to 200 meters, and the excess between pairs is up to 400 meters.

§ 204. Having found enemy fighters, our strike group from above, on a collision course, switches to attack simultaneously along the entire enemy strike group, after which, having an advantage in speed, it leaves with a right combat turn (towards the enemy's bearing) upward to take a new starting position for the subsequent attacks (see fig. No. 39).

The strike group of the enemy, having accepted an attack from below on a collision course, having a lower speed, will go down to the separation with a subsequent climb. The separation and combat turn of our strike group, the separation and turn of the enemy group will take 1 minute in time, during which time the gap between the groups will be equal to 5-8 km.

§ 205. From the moment of the transition of our strike group to the attack, our covering group, with a climb, takes the starting position for the attack and attacks the enemy covering group from above on a collision course, followed by a right turn upward to take the starting position for the attack (see Fig. No. 40).

By this time, our strike group will be on a combat turn and the task of the covering group is to follow the strike group, and at the necessary moment to repel the enemy's attack.

After the attack, the gap between our covering group and the enemy's covering group will be 6-8 km, and at the moment of a combat turn, our covering group will be in a position favorable for attacking a pair of free enemy maneuvers, which can attack the covering group from behind from above, since the distance from the beginning of the attack of our covering group until a couple of free enemy maneuvers will be 1.5 km, which will take up to 20 seconds.

§ 206. The task of our pair of free maneuvers (reserve) is to build up their maneuvers so as to be in the area of \u200b\u200bexit from the attack of our shock and cover groups. In case of a possible transition of a pair of free maneuver of the enemy to attack our covering group, our pair of free maneuver (reserve) repels the attack followed by a move up (see Fig. No. 41).

The variant indicates the principal actions of the groups during the first attack. Further actions of the groups will depend on the current air situation and the decisions taken by the squadron commander for further actions.

AIRBALL PATROL

§ 207. Air combat when patrolling a squadron of fighters with a mixed enemy group in clear weather should be organized on the following principles (option): when patrolling a squadron, the height of the lower group should not be lower than 2000 m. This height ensures safety against fire from MZA and anti-aircraft machine guns.

Patrolling must be done from the sunny side of the object, since on sunny days the enemy makes bombardments from the sun in order to make it difficult! countering air defense weapons. In addition, one can see much farther from the sun than against the sun. If the enemy does not appear from the direction of the sun, then the patrolling fighters will see him on the way, and they themselves will be poorly visible to the enemy.

§ 208. A battle with a group of bombers takes more time than with a single aircraft, therefore the group must be met not over the protected object, but in advance so that, until the group reaches the target, it would suffer such a defeat that would force it to refuse to fulfill the set task or in extreme cases would be as weakened as much as possible.

The first attack is to break up the battle formation of the enemy group into single aircraft or small groups and thereby deprive it of fire interaction.

It is necessary to strive to make the first attack suddenly; convergence to produce using clouds and the sun. To carry out attacks in the range of several bombers, which reduces fire resistance and increases the area of \u200b\u200bdestruction of enemy aircraft.

When attacking a group of bombers, the effectiveness of fire from large angles increases significantly.

Attacks against large groups must be carried out from different or from the same direction by echelons in a battle formation close to the front.

An attack on a group of bombers that has rebuilt in a circle must be carried out from the outside in front, since in this direction the fire of the bombers is weak, and the fighters quickly slip past the sectors of fire.

§ 209. The order of battle of the squadron should be as follows: a strike group of 6 aircraft patrols at an altitude of 2000 m. Above the strike group at 1000 m, a cover group of 4 aircraft patrols, and walks along the course of the strike group, but in such a way as to be on the opposite side of the zone for better viewing of the rear hemisphere of the strike group. Above the cover group with an excess of 1500 m with a reverse course, a pair of free maneuvers (reserve), allocated from the best pilots, travels (see Fig. No. 42).

The squadron commander is at the head of the cover group. Deputy squadron commander - in the strike group.

Before meeting the enemy, the squadron's battle order is the same as when searching for the enemy.

When meeting with the enemy, the groups occupy the battle formation for the attack.

§ 210. The tactics of actions of the strike group.

When detecting enemy bombers following under the cover of fighters, you must:

Take the starting position for the attack;

The first attack is to try to destroy the battle formation of bombers;

Prevent the enemy from reaching the target;

Destroy it piece by piece with subsequent attacks.

§ 211. If a large group of bombers is echeloned in depth, then it is advisable to attack with the whole group; if the group is small, the attack is made in pairs from different directions. In the event that our covering group is not able to pin down all enemy fighters in battle, then it is necessary to separate a couple of aircraft from the strike group to pin down the group of direct cover of the enemy.

§ 212. Tactics of actions of the covering group.

The main task of the group is to pin down the enemy cover by battle and thereby enable the strike group to fulfill its task.

The cover group should not get involved in a prolonged battle with enemy fighters, but should ensure the actions of the strike group with short strikes.

The cover group must approach the enemy before the strike group in order to tie up the enemy fighters in battle and allow the strike group to approach the enemy bombers.

§ 213. Tactics of actions of a pair of free maneuver (reserve).

A pair of free maneuver (reserve), being higher than all other fighters, from above with short strikes followed by going upward destroys the detached enemy aircraft and does not give the enemy fighters the opportunity to reach “excess over our fighters during the battle.

A pair of free maneuvers (reserves) should promptly come to the aid of comrades in a difficult situation.

Section 214. Patrolling a squadron in overcast mid-altitude clouds.

The formation of the squadron's battle formation remains the same as in clear weather. In this case, a pair of free maneuvers (reserve) moves under the lower edge of the cloud and excludes the possibility of a surprise attack from enemy aircraft from behind the clouds on the groups located below.

To view the airspace under the clouds, the couple maneuvers in the vertical plane up to 300 m (see Fig. No. 43).

§ 215. In cases where an attack by FV-190 fighters as attack aircraft is expected on a guarded object, the formation of battle formations of patrolling fighters should proceed from the peculiarities of FV-190 actions against ground targets.

The attack on ground objects FV-190 is built on the basis of the possibility of sudden and quick penetration to the object, the minimum time spent over the target, the use of an attack by several groups under the cover of a fighter outfit, and avoiding pursuit on (low level flight, using the maximum speed obtained from the ground.

§ 216. For a more effective fight against FV-190 fighter-attack aircraft, the battle formations of patrolling fighters must also be built in 2-3 tiers, but the heights of the tiers must be "significantly reduced.

The patrol of the lower tier should walk at altitudes of no more than 400-500 meters, and the patrol of the upper tier should go at altitudes of 1300-1500 meters.

The choice of the indicated heights for patrols is conditioned by the following:

FV-190 more often approach a guarded object on low level flight, they must be intercepted and attacked by aircraft of the lower tier, and aircraft of the upper tier, in this case, must provide aircraft of the lower tier from possible attacks of enemy covering fighters.

If the FV-190 attack aircraft will approach the protected object at altitudes of 1000-1500 meters, then they must be intercepted and attacked by the upper-tier aircraft.

Section 217. When organizing a patrol with a mixed group of fighters, the following must be borne in mind:

for Yak-3 aircraft, which have superiority over the FV-190 (latest modifications) in maneuverability and rate of climb, you are more fit to attack them and impose a battle on them before approaching the guarded object, and for LA-7 aircraft, which have an advantage over the FV-190 at maximum speed, it is more profitable to attack them on the way to the target and pursue the leaving enemy.

AERIAL COMBAT ACCEPTED BY BOMBERS

§ 218. Air combat of a squadron with enemy fighters accompanied by bombers (attack aircraft) at medium altitudes should be organized on the following principles (option):

§ 219. Escort of bombers and attack aircraft is used in case of active counteraction by enemy aircraft on the flight route and over the target.

The number of escort fighters depends on the expected enemy opposition and the size of the covered group. Usually an escort of fighters as part of a squadron is dressed up to escort nine bombers.

§ 220. The battle formation of a squadron should be built of three groups:

Direct cover groups;

Strike group;

Pairs of free maneuver (reserve) (see fig. No. 44).

The direct cover group is made up of a link, one pair, led by the flight commander, goes 200 m in front and 200 m higher, with an interval of 200 m from the flank, bomber link.

The second pair goes at an interval of 200 m from the flanking flight of bombers, has a 200 m drop and 200 m behind, with the task of excluding attacks by bombers from below.

If the flight is made in sunny weather, then the excess has a pair coming from the side opposite to the sun.

The main task of the fighters of the direct cover group is to prevent attacks by enemy fighters accompanied by aircraft, therefore, fighters following in the direct cover group should not leave their places for a long time.

Combat tactics in such conditions mainly consist in short cut-off attacks without pursuing the enemy.

§ 221. The strike group consists of 6 aircraft and, led by the squadron commander, is 500-800 m behind at an interval of 400 m and exceeding 500-800 m.

Above 1000 m there is a pair of free maneuver (reserve), allocated from the strike group.

In sunny weather, the strike group follows in relation to the bombers from the side opposite to the sun.

§ 222. The location of the strike group from the side of the sun in the alignment does not make it possible to detect in advance the enemy attacking from the side of the sun, due to which the enemy has the opportunity either to slip through the strike group at high speed with a dive or even attack successively fighters and then bombers.

Calculations show that when a strike group is located from the side opposite to the sun, it is able to timely detect an enemy attacking from the direction of the sun and repel his attack. So, when exceeding 500 m, an interval of 400 m and behind 400 m, if the fighters detect an enemy at a distance of 1200 m, "diving at an angle of 60 °, during a turn towards the enemy-5 seconds. The enemy will cover a distance of 830 m, the total the speed of convergence is 248 m / sec., the time of convergence with the enemy up to a distance of 100 m is 9.5 sec., at a distance from the bombers \u003d 400 m, where they will come at the time of the convergence and meeting of our fighters with the enemy fighters. groups from the side opposite to the sun, even with late detection of the enemy (1200 m), they have the opportunity to repel his attack on the covered group.If the strike group follows from the sun, it should not be in line with the sun.

§ 223. The strike group has the task of pinning down the enemy fighters in battle and thereby excluding the possibility of attacks on bombers.

The actions of the strike group fighters must be proactive, decisive and active.

When conducting a battle, the fighters of the strike group should not break away from the escorted aircraft. When approaching the area of \u200b\u200boperations of the escorted aircraft, the strike group moves forward, borders the area, or moves in the direction of the most likely appearance of the enemy.

A free maneuver (reserve) pair performs the same tasks as when patrolling.

The lagging aircraft must be covered by fighters from the strike group.

§ 224. When escorting two nines of bombers by a squadron, the escort is built in two groups: eight aircraft-close cover group and four aircraft-strike group (option).

The groups' actions will be defensive in nature and based on fire interaction with the escorted aircraft.

The strike group repels the attack of enemy fighters with short cut-off attacks, without breaking away from the escorted group.

BASIC TRAINING PRINCIPLES FOR AIR COMBAT PILOTS

Air combat, as you know, consists of maneuver and fire.

A fighter pilot who perfectly masters the maneuver and fire of his plane is the master pilot of air combat.

A fighter pilot, while in the air, must always be in danger of being attacked.

The motto of flight in combat conditions should be: search-attack-communication-revenue.

The main formula of modern air combat is: altitude-speed-maneuver-fire.

In order to successfully conduct an air battle to destroy the enemy, a fighter pilot must be able, first of all, to competently and skillfully prepare a "workplace", to detect the enemy first and, in the process of convergence, achieve tactical advantages and, first of all, surprise attack and superiority in altitude ... Having detected the enemy first, the pilot excludes the possibility of a surprise attack from the enemy and gets the possibility of a sudden and, as a rule, unpunished attack and destruction of the enemy. A visible enemy is not terrible, an invisible one threatens defeat. The superiority in height achieved in the process of rapprochement makes it possible to seize the initiative of the battle in one's own hands, to forestall the enemy in maneuver and in attack.

For the offensive tactics of our high-speed fighters, the main maneuver is a vertical maneuver, an offensive maneuver. And the basis of the vertical maneuver, just, is the height and speed.

Therefore, the task of a fighter pilot is to master the art of conquering altitude, converting altitude to speed and vice versa. Knowledge of the tactical flight capabilities of one's aircraft and the ability to use them to the fullest has a great influence on the quality of vertical maneuver.

Destruction of the enemy by fire is the ultimate goal of the battle. Therefore, a complex and often prolonged maneuver is carried out in the interests of fire and is aimed at one goal: to open aimed fire and destroy the enemy, which means that if the pilot does not master the maneuver perfectly, then he is not able to open aimed fire and, conversely, like a pilot skillfully did not maneuver - it will not work if the pilot is not an excellent shooter and does not know how to hit the enemy for sure.

The pilot must be able to complete the maneuver in such a way as to bring the plane to the enemy and, having introduced only a slight correction, open aimed fire.

The maneuver must be meaningful and meaningful precisely in relation to the fire.

To conduct a successful battle, a fighter pilot must know perfectly the technique and tactics of the enemy. This makes it possible to confidently approach the enemy and beat him in the most vulnerable places for sure.

Fighter pilots must be adept at organizing continuous and effective communication. Interaction is the best defense against enemy attacks and should be based on mutual help, assistance and support.

The pilot's initiative, the rejection of the template in actions, of the stencil, greatly influences the favorable course of the battle. An initiative pilot is a pilot who acts in a deeply meaningful way, in accordance with the situation, he is a pilot of quick, bold decisions and actions, constantly looking for new tactics of combat, he is a pilot who acts swiftly and decisively, bringing attacks persistently to a decisive end. The pilot should not mechanically, not formally, but creatively approach the solution of all issues that suddenly arise in a fleeting battle.

Combat mastery is provided by knowledge of the principles of air combat, creativity, intelligence, and plus excellent training.

Thus, the training of an air combat master pilot should be based on practicing:

1) continuous search for the enemy and battle with him, which ensures the activity of actions and a pronounced offensive spirit of the fighter pilot;

2) the ability to achieve stealth rapprochement for a surprise attack, as the best means of achieving victory;

3) the ability to achieve superiority in height in the process of rapprochement and seizure of the battle initiative, the ability to impose one's will on the enemy;

4) excellent piloting technique, the ability to master the car perfectly in order to play it, the ability to make all the figures that the plane is capable of performing. There are no non-combat units. Any figure or part of it can make up the necessary maneuver in battle;

5) high fire skills. The pilot's skills to destroy the enemy with the first attack. Ability to be a master of the first attack;

6) the ability to perfectly organize interaction, to maintain their place in the battle formation, not to come off under any conditions;

7) constant combat improvement. Excellent knowledge of the tactics of enemy actions, our tactics and the experience of advanced pilot-masters of air combat, the search for new forms of combat and the imposition of them on the enemy, without stopping there. There is no skill limit. Weakened improvement means lagging behind, and they beat backward;

8) the strictest self-discipline, iron military and flight discipline, which is the basis for success in battle;

9) instilling in the pilot love and devotion to his people, the Fatherland, the Party, the will to win, contempt for death, moral and physical stamina.

Preparation should be based on:

a) study of the experience of the Patriotic War, study of the experience of advanced pilot-masters of air combat;

b) working out all the elements on the ground, on training equipment and bringing them to automatism;

c) working off all elements in the air, bringing flight conditions as close as possible to combat conditions;

d) systematic and deep work of the student on himself under the guidance and control of the officer-educators.

PROGRAM STAGES OF TRAINING FOR AIR COMBAT PILOTS

The whole process of training a pilot-master of air combat consists of two periods:

1) The period of theoretical training;

2) A period of practical training.

The period of theoretical training includes the following: the student who entered the school undergoes introductory tests, the purpose of which is to determine the student's actual knowledge of the tactics of fighter actions in general, and especially knowledge of air combat techniques.

After that, the student undergoes a 54-hour program on the theoretical foundations of air combat tactics, the study of enemy aircraft and passes course credits. Then the student enters the squadron for practical training.

The practical training period consists of three main stages:

1) the stage of studying the listener by the pilot-educators;

2) the stage of checking the listener in the air and practicing the techniques of piloting and firing;

3) The stage of teaching separately separate techniques for conducting air combat, teaching a combination of individual techniques and free creative air combat.

The first stage includes the following: the student who entered the squadron, after being assigned to groups, is studied by the instructor and in personal conversations.

The instructor reveals the learner's knowledge, his preparation, what he is capable of and what needs to be learned. Careful study and knowledge of the trainee by the instructor and a strictly individual approach to each is a prerequisite for successful training.

The second stage includes the following: the instructor examines and checks the listener in the air, makes sure that the data about the listener is true, determines the quality of the piloting technique, points out the errors made by the listener, and eliminates them by showing and training the listener.

In total, the student receives 12 control flights with a flight time of 3 hours 35 minutes (1 section of the program)

After that, the student, under the guidance of an instructor, polishes his personal piloting technique. For which 36 flights with a flight time of 7 hours 35 minutes are allocated, and he trains air and ground targets, for which 16 flights with a flight time of 8 hours are allocated (section 2 of the program).

Thus, by the beginning of training the elements of air combat, the pilot should already have sufficient control over the maneuver and fire of his aircraft.

The third stage is as follows: the listener works out individual combat techniques, maneuvering in a horizontal plane, a maneuver that excludes the possibility of an attacker's aiming fire, a maneuver in a vertical plane; practicing the skills of maintaining his place when maneuvering in the vertical and horizontal planes, group flying, typical attacks on fighters and bombers, searching for the enemy and free air combat in the vertical plane of a creative nature with a combination of all elements of combat.

The listener makes 10 flights to practice these elements, with a flight time of 4 hours 10 minutes (exercises 20, 21, 22, 23). After that, the listener proceeds to practice creative free air combat in complex flights. The listener performs all complex flights against the background of the tactical situation. Air battles are carried out during en-route flights, for reconnaissance, for covering their ground forces, for attacking and in free flights in order to find the "enemy" and fight with him.

Air battles are conducted with fighters and bombers of the "enemy", including a battle with a build-up of forces by calling fighters from the airfield from the state of duty.

To practice air combat in complex flights, the listener makes 21 flights, with a flight time of 15 hours, including the test exercise (exercise; No. 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38).

In all sorties, and especially in complex flights, radio is used to the maximum extent for controlling the actions of fighters for communication both between aircraft and with the ground.

SAMPLE LISTENER FLIGHT PLAN

A student undergoing training at the Higher Officer School of Air Combat of the Red Army Air Force must build a flight plan according to the following principle:

1. Each flight should be conducted against a tactical background.

2. Correctly combine discretion with the search for the enemy.

The basic principles of discretion should be:

a) constantly see all aircraft in the air and correctly assess the air situation;

b) before changing direction in the horizontal or vertical plane, it is necessary to ensure the safety of the subsequent movement maneuver;

c) anticipate the maneuver of the enemy aircraft and build his maneuver accordingly;

d) do not cover the aircraft in an air battle with your aircraft, do not give it the opportunity to be in the dead view;

e) the enemy is dangerous not the one that is in the field of visibility, but the one that is invisible. This is the golden rule for both training and real air combat;

f) if the aircraft is lost in the course of air combat or piloting, it is necessary to perform such a maneuver that would guarantee the safety and speed of detection of the aircraft lost from sight.

3. Monitor the engine with a short view of the dashboard.

4. Conduct orientation control. Know your location.

5. Control the time spent in flight.

6. Know the actual fuel consumption and the permissible flight time.

7. Maintain radio communication in the group and with the ground.

8. Maintain visual contact with the planes of your group, constantly see your planes.

SCHEME

presentation of the audience after completing the flight task

After completing each flight, the listener will report the following:

1. Meteorological situation and working conditions.

2. The nature of the work of the material part of the aircraft and the engine.

3. Air situation:

a) place and time of aircraft detection;

b) course to follow and altitude;

c) composition, type and quantity;

d) the nature of the action.

4. Ground situation:

a) the location and actions of the FOR;

b) railway transportation, the composition of railway trains, types of cars, direction of movement;

c) convoys - covered or open vehicles, with cargo or military units, direction of movement, number and type of vehicles;

d) animal-drawn transport - type and number of carts, the direction of movement of the carts;

e) military columns, direction of movement, number, what number of troops: tanks. Artillery, cavalry, infantry, etc.

5. How the flight mission was completed.

6. Willingness to perform the next task.

In addition to the above questions, the listener additionally reports after completing the flight tasks:

Section 1:

1. A detailed report on the technique of performing aerobatics and their sequence of execution.

Section 2:

1. A detailed report on the construction of a maneuver when firing at a shield and a cone, as well as the distance of opening and ceasing fire, the number of bursts, the height of the dive or the distance from an air target when firing at a cone.

Section 3:

1. A detailed report on the conducted air combat followed by its description and delivery to the instructor.

Y. ZHELNIN, Candidate of Technical Sciences.

The title of the article is prompted by the enthusiastic reaction of viewers watching the spectacular maneuvers of domestic fighters at the air show, when the plane flies backward by 120 degrees. Behind this maneuver there is a serious work to create a new direction in improving fighters, called "super maneuverability". The unprofessional term - tail-first flight - has become an occasion for discussion and popular presentation of a number of physical and technical foundations of aerodynamics, flight dynamics and control of modern fighters.

Science and Life // Illustrations

Figure: 1. "Pugacheva's Cobra", or flight "tail first".

Figure: 2. Scheme of the aerodynamic forces acting on the plate in the air flow at different angles of attack.

Figure: 3. Diagram of the aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft when reaching supercritical angles of attack.

Figure: 4. Cyclogram of aircraft positions when performing the "Cobra" maneuver.

Aerobatics using the super-maneuverability mode. Hook (top - top view, bottom - side view).

Aerobatics using the super-maneuverability mode. Left - "Bell". On the right is Cobra.

Aerobatics using the super-maneuverability mode. On the left - the "Helicopter" figure, on the right - "J-turn" (shown twice: top - side view, bottom - top view).

Figure: 5. Diagram of the forces acting on the aircraft when the engine nozzle deflects.

Fig. 6. A picture of air combat between two fighters, when one of them ("red") uses super-maneuverability ("Hook").

For nearly twenty years, since 1989, domestic fighters Su-27 and MiG-29 have been performing the memorable maneuver "Cobra", which has actually become the trademark of domestic fighters. Airplane piloting usually takes place at angles of attack not exceeding 10-15 ° (the angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and its velocity vector), while the nose of the aircraft is oriented in the direction of flight. When performing the "Cobra" maneuver, the angles of attack can reach 120 °, the plane deviates backward, and the viewer gets the impression that it is flying "tail first" (Fig. 1).

Foreign fighters, including the serial American F-15, F-16, F-18, could not do this maneuver then, and only a few years later, specially equipped F-15 and F-16 fighters began to perform it, at that time both the Su-27 and MiG-29 were production vehicles. Moreover, the Cobra maneuver became, to a certain extent, a sign of the quality of a fighter; for example, while emphasizing the broad capabilities of the new American F-22 Raptor fighter, the foreign press mentioned its ability to perform this maneuver.

The spectacular Cobra maneuver, first performed by test pilot V. G. Pugachev and demonstrated by him in 1989 at an air show in Le Bourget, was preceded by theoretical and experimental work carried out at TsAGI since the late 1970s. Later, TsAGI, with the participation of the Sukhoi Design Bureau, Mikoyan Design Bureau, GosNIIAS and LII, carried out a large amount of calculations, tests in wind tunnels, simulations on aerobatic stands, flight tests on dynamically similar models and on a Su-27 aircraft. The next stage of research was completed in 1989 with the development and mastering of the so-called dynamic approach to supercritical angles of attack, which was later named "Cobra". A group of TsAGI employees - Yu. N. Zhelnin, V. L. Sukhanov, L. M. Shkadov - and test pilot V. G. Pugachev for the theoretical development and mastering of this maneuver were awarded the N. Ye. Zhukovsky Prize for 1990 ...

When performing the "Cobra" maneuver, the aircraft reaches angles of attack that were previously unattainable and, strictly speaking, prohibited in flight practice. The fact is that when angles of the order of 20-25 °, which are called "critical", are reached, the aerodynamic flow pattern changes significantly, the so-called separated flow sets in, the plane loses stability, it stalls and then gets into a spin. This phenomenon is extremely undesirable and dangerous, therefore there is a system of measures that do not allow the pilot to exceed the critical angle of attack.

This limitation significantly hindered the possibility of aircraft evolution in space and was especially acute in air combat, when the pilot sometimes "lacks" the angle of attack for successful combat. Therefore, in the late 1970s - early 1980s, both in our country and abroad, they began to conduct research on the development of angles of attack over 60 °. Later, the term “supermaneuverability” appeared, which was borrowed from foreign sources (supermaneurability), although in the first domestic studies this mode was called “flight at supercritical angles of attack”. These terms were used by the German specialist VB Herbst in his work in 1980, which a year later became known in our country. Today the term "supermaneuverability" means the ability of an aircraft to maneuver without restrictions on the angle of attack, although it does not fully reflect all the capabilities of a fighter. Among them there are those that can be similarly called "super-controllability" - the ability to practically unlimitedly change the orientation of the aircraft relative to the direction of flight.

Tests of models of promising fighters at angles of more than 60 ° in the T-105 wind tunnel of TsAGI showed the presence of dynamic lateral stability of the vehicles of some aerodynamic schemes. It became clear that it is possible to fly in such modes, but ensuring controllability is a very difficult task. Before starting to solve it, it was necessary to assess what their application gives in terms of combat effectiveness, to check whether it is high enough.

The first stage of work was devoted to the assessment of efficiency. The results of mathematical modeling showed a significant superiority of the super-maneuverable fighter. They were confirmed by semi-natural modeling carried out in 1982-1983 at TsAGI together with GosNIIAS on the KPM-2300 aerobatic stand: a fighter using supercritical angles of attack in close air combat really gains an advantage due to its energetic turn and a decrease in the turn radius. Simulation of long-range air combat showed that a super-maneuverable fighter, after launching a rocket, can equally effectively use an exit at large angles for intensive braking.

At the next stage of research, the possibility of implementing such modes was analyzed, ensuring the stability and controllability of the aircraft. In 1987, TsAGI tested models of the Su-27 aircraft in the T-105 wind tunnel in the range of angles of attack from 0 to 180 ° and slip angles ± 90 °. Analysis of the test results allowed the author to draw an important conclusion. It turned out that when the horizontal tail was completely deflected for pitching, the aircraft could reach large angles of attack in the mode of rapid dynamic "throw" and return to its original position. And this despite the fact that the efficiency of the aerodynamic longitudinal controls in the area of \u200b\u200blarge angles of attack is practically "zero".

Mathematical modeling of the maneuver showed the validity of the assumption made. In 5-7 seconds, the aircraft reached angles of attack of more than 60-90 ° and independently returned to the area of \u200b\u200bsmall angles. At the same time, the speed decreased almost twice, and the height changed only by 100-150 meters. Pitch angular velocity reached 60 degrees / s, lateral disturbance did not develop.

Let's consider in more detail the mechanics of such a maneuver. Figuratively speaking, the action of aerodynamic forces on an airplane corresponds to the very widespread principle of oscillations of a pendulum or a spring with a load: when an object deviates from the equilibrium position, forces should arise that tend to return it back. In the process of any oscillation, the minimum and maximum values \u200b\u200bof the amplitude are achieved, and the change in the angle of attack during the execution of the Cobra maneuver has the same character. The minimum value of the amplitude corresponds to the "usual" angles of attack of 10-15 °, the maximum - to the supercritical angles 90-120 °.

The scheme of aerodynamic forces acting on an aircraft can be illustrated by the example of an air flow around a plate (Fig. 2). At small angles of attack with a continuous flow around the plate, the point of application of the total aerodynamic force (center of pressure) lies in its front part, in front of the geometric center of gravity of the plate. As a result, a moment of forces is created, aimed at increasing the angle of attack (at pitching). Upon reaching 90 °, the point of application of the aerodynamic force will coincide with the center of gravity and the moment of forces will become equal to zero. With a further increase in the angle, the aerodynamic force will be applied to a point behind the center of gravity (indicated by the letter "a" in the figure) and directed downward. Due to this, the opposite moment is created, causing a decrease in the angle of attack (dive). There is a diagram of forces corresponding to stable oscillations about an equilibrium position equal to an angle of the order of 90 °. This creates the prerequisites for the oscillatory process - periodically reaching a large angle of attack and returning to the area of \u200b\u200bthe initial angles.

The dynamics of the aircraft movement under the action of aerodynamic forces is similar (Fig. 3). It is achieved both by deflecting the controls (in particular, the rotary stabilizer), and due to the aerodynamic layout of the aircraft, which contains the concept of its static instability. But unlike the plate, the point of application of the total aerodynamic force coincides with the center of mass of the aircraft at an angle of 50-60 ° - the so-called balancing angle of attack.

At the first stage, under the influence of the pitching torque, the aircraft develops the angular velocity of rotation, acquiring kinetic energy, passes the equilibrium point by inertia (Fig. 4, a, b) and continues to rotate, increasing the angle of attack. When the angle of attack becomes greater than the balancing angle, there is a dive torque counteracting rotation. Due to it, the rotation stops, and the maximum angle of attack is reached (Fig. 4, c). Under the influence of the moment to dive, turn in the opposite direction begins. At angles of attack that are less than the balancing one, a moment arises that counteracts rotation and stops the aircraft in its initial position (Fig. 4, d, e). In this case, an intensive deceleration of the aircraft occurs; with fixed aerodynamic characteristics, it is mainly determined by the wing load - the ratio of the aircraft weight to its wing area. An essential role is played by the moment of inertia of the aircraft, the distance between the center of pressure and the center of mass of the aircraft, and other parameters. Their various combinations lead to various variants of dynamic output to supercritical angles of attack. In particular, the restoring moment (for a dive) may be insufficient to return to the starting position. Therefore, theoretically, the following three options can be assumed:

The aircraft reaches a certain maximum value of the angle of attack and returns to its original position ("Cobra");

The aircraft develops a high angular speed of rotation and, continuing it, returns to its original position, having made a revolution by 360 ° ("Somersault");

The aircraft reaches high angles of attack, stops at the point where the moment is zero, and does not return to its original position ("Helicopter", or "Corkscrew").

The ratio of the parameters of the Su-27 aircraft turned out to be the most favorable for the implementation of the first option. It should be noted that it was not foreseen in advance to perform this maneuver, but manifested itself in the process of research and flight tests. The main factors that determined the successful execution of the Cobra maneuver were the high efficiency of its rotary stabilizer and a small margin of static stability.

The area of \u200b\u200binstability of the aircraft is in the vicinity of the angles of attack 30-40 °. In this area, lateral disturbing movement of the aircraft may develop and a stall may occur. However, its development takes a certain amount of time, and if one leaves the region of instability earlier, the stall will not occur. For the successful execution of the Cobra maneuver, the aircraft must develop a sufficiently high angular velocity in pitch (in longitudinal motion) to quickly overshoot the instability area. This is to some extent similar to the movement of a person along a narrow crossing without railings: it is safer to overcome it by running, and not slowly and carefully trying to balance.

The short duration of the maneuver saves one more trouble. The fact is that asymmetric vortices are formed at high angles of attack above the wing, along the aircraft fuselage. They cause the appearance of very unfavorable, so-called asymmetric disturbing lateral roll and yaw moments. And during the rapid passage of the vortex formation zones, they do not have time to fully form.

This led to the conclusion: to perform the maneuver, the pilot must very quickly deflect the horizontal tail to the pitch up to the maximum. This imposes certain requirements on the aircraft control system. In the Su-27, it contains negative feedbacks, which prevent it from developing too high an angular velocity, slows down the stabilizer when the control stick is abruptly deflected, and “softens” the aircraft's reaction to sudden pilot actions. Therefore, in the control system, it is necessary to exclude feedbacks and switch to a mode with a "rigid" connection of the control stick with the rotary stabilizer: taking the control stick towards himself at maximum speed, the pilot just as quickly deflects the stabilizer to the maximum position.

In this regard, it is appropriate to conduct some comparative analysis of the Bell and Dynamic Exit maneuvers. In essence, they are the limiting elements of one family of maneuvers with access to large supercritical angles of attack with an intense loss of speed and return to the region of small angles. Maneuvers of this type also include maneuvers with "slow" access to large angles of attack, which occupy an intermediate position in the indicated family. They differ only in the way of achieving large supercritical angles of attack.

Another problem is related to engine performance. When reaching large angles of attack, the flow stalls at the edges of the air intakes and the so-called surge occurs - pulsations of the air flow, due to which the engine stalls. The appearance of surging effects is highly dependent on the location of the air intakes and their shape. The configuration of the air intakes on the Su-27 and MiG-29 fighters ensures the stable operation of the engine when reaching large angles of attack, corresponding to a tail-first flight. In addition to this moment, the speed drops sharply, and the operating conditions of the air intake become close to the operation of the engine on a stationary bench, where there is no stall.

The dynamic exit speed is limited by another factor: the effect of overload on the pilot. The overload limit limits the speed range at which it is possible. For the Su-27, the rate of overloading significantly exceeds the allowable one. However, the short-term overload characteristic of this maneuver is tolerated by the pilot relatively easily. In this case, the main component of the overload acts in the usual direction - the pelvis - the head.

When the cockpit rotates relative to the center of mass at high angular speeds in pitch, an overload occurs in the chest-back direction, which causes the pilot to "nod" in the direction of the dashboard and reaches 2-2.5 g. This overload can also limit the speed range during the maneuver.

TsAGI and the Sukhoi Design Bureau jointly studied the characteristics of the dynamic output on a specific aircraft, clarified the range of flight modes and other factors necessary for flight tests.

At the end of 1988, the studies were completed, a semi-natural simulation was carried out on the PSPK-1 TsAGI aerobatic stand of these modes with the participation of LII test pilot L. D. Lobos. At the same time, stall and spin tests of the Su-27 aircraft were completed, carried out by specialists from the Sukhoi Design Bureau, LII and TsAGI. Flight tests of the dynamic approach to high angles of attack included two programs.

The first one began to perform in February 1989 by test pilot of the Sukhoi Design Bureau Viktor Pugachev as part of the preparation of demonstration flights at the Le Bourget air show, where the Su-27 aircraft was first presented. Flight tests under the second program began two months later by LII test pilot Leonid Lobos. It was aimed at defining the boundaries and conditions for performing a dynamic approach to supercritical angles of attack.

An essential point of the first program was the development of a dynamic exit from horizontal flight at low altitude - 400-500 meters. Test flights began at an altitude of 10,000 meters, lowering it as they mastered the maneuver. The first flights were carried out with a control system limiting angular speeds. Although they showed the fundamental possibility of performing this maneuver, the lateral movement developing at the same time did not allow achieving a stable maneuver. Then they decided to switch to control in the "hard link" mode. As a result, the stability of the maneuver significantly improved, and at the end of April V. Pugachev confidently performed it at an altitude of 400 meters, having worked out the technique of piloting "tail-first", which he demonstrated at Le Bourget. This maneuver became known all over the world under the name "Pugacheva's Cobra".

Leonid Lobos also successfully mastered this maneuver, performing it not only from horizontal flight, but also with different roll and pitch angles. Later, this maneuver with roll angles of the order of 90 ° was mastered on airplanes with a deflected thrust vector (OBT), was repeatedly demonstrated at demonstration flights and received the name "Hook". After some time, similar maneuvers, although with some differences, began to be performed on MiG-29 aircraft, which have slightly different characteristics.

At first, studies of super-maneuverability were somewhat abstract in nature, and the time of its practical implementation seemed a very distant prospect. But when the dynamic output was successfully tested in flight practice, its practical usefulness became obvious, and the use of a deflected thrust vector finally made super-maneuverability a reality.

The very idea of \u200b\u200ba dynamic approach to high angles of attack as a purposeful maneuver was first formulated and substantiated in the works of TsAGI in 1987. At first, it caused great doubts among specialists. The active support of this idea by the leadership of TsAGI and the leading experts GS Byushgens, GI Zagainov, LM Shkadov, VL Sukhanov made it possible to obtain convincing results of theoretical research. However, it was impossible to bring the idea to life without the involvement of specialists from TsAGI, LII, Sukhoi Design Bureau and Mikoyan Design Bureau. Particularly noteworthy is the role of the General Designer of the Sukhoi Design Bureau - M.P.Simonov: he made a responsible and, to a certain extent, risky decision to conduct flight tests of the maneuver, contrary to the opinion of many experts. Mastering the super-maneuverability modes on the existing generation Su-27 and MiG-29 fighters attracted the attention of a wide range of aviation specialists and gave a new impetus to research. In the USA, experimental aircraft Kh-31A, F-15, F-16 and F-18 fighters equipped with a deflected thrust vector (OVT) were tested in this mode. Similar studies were carried out on the Su-27 aircraft with OVT, which made it possible to expand the class of maneuvers at supercritical angles of attack.

The use of OVT is due to the need to create additional control forces of the aircraft in super-maneuverability modes, when the aerodynamic controls become ineffective - at high supercritical angles of attack and low flight speeds. Therefore, the range of such modes for aircraft without OVT is rather narrow and is practically limited only by the Cobra maneuver, when the aircraft is practically uncontrollable, and its stability is mainly determined by the short duration of the maneuver. It is possible to drastically increase controllability by deflecting the jet stream using the rotary engine nozzle. When the jet is deflected, the engine thrust acquires two components: one passes through the center of mass and is directed along the aircraft axis, the other perpendicular to it. Depending on the orientation of the axis of rotation of the nozzle, when it is deflected, control moments are created in the longitudinal and lateral motion (Fig. 5, a, b). For a two-engine aircraft scheme, deflection of the nozzles in opposite directions makes it possible to create roll moments (Fig. 5, c).

Creating and controlling a rotary nozzle is a very complex technical task. The simplest is the single-axis scheme implemented on the Su-30MKI and F-22 aircraft. More complicated is the two-axis scheme, which is used on the MiG-29OVT, F-16 MATV "VISTA", F-15 "ACTIV" and provides independent control in pitch, yaw and roll. And the V-shaped position of the uniaxial circular nozzles of the Su-30MKI aircraft, developed jointly by TsAGI and the Sukhoi Design Bureau (Fig. 5, d), makes it possible, within the framework of a uniaxial scheme, to create a control torque along all three axes of a twin-engine aircraft. The use of OVT allows you to significantly expand the range of maneuvers (some of them are shown in the figures).

The Bell and Cobra maneuvers can also be performed by aerodynamically controlled aircraft, but with OVT they are more precise, increasing the safety of their execution.

The "Helicopter" maneuver is performed with a decrease and rotation of the aircraft in the roll plane along a small-radius helical line that looks like a corkscrew in appearance. However, this is a controlled maneuver, the aircraft easily leaves it in straight flight or starts rotating in the opposite direction.

The "J-turn" maneuver is designed for a vigorous 180 ° turn in tight spaces. It got its name because of the similarity of the trajectory with the Latin capital letter "J" and was first proposed by W. Herbst.

"Somersault", or "360 ° flip", in a certain sense serves as a development of the "Cobra" maneuver: the plane returns to its original position not through the reverse movement, but continuing to rotate.

The Hook was conceived as a Cobra maneuver performed with a 90 ° roll. Similar maneuvers at different bank angles represent different variants of a "combat" maneuver.

All of the maneuvers described above are performed by test pilots and demonstrated at the air show. All of them can be combined, making spectacular cascades of aerobatics, for example "Cobra" + "Helicopter", "Hook" + "Helicopter" and others, including their combat options.

New fighters with increased maneuverability are created, naturally, for air combat with superiority over the enemy. Indeed, turning the aircraft at a large angle, practically regardless of the direction of flight, allows one to outstrip the enemy, who does not have such capabilities, in the use of weapons, and in fact, the advance launch of the missile, in essence, determines the outcome of the battle. This is definitely a positive feature of a super-maneuverable fighter. On the other hand, such a maneuver leads to a significant loss of speed, which for some time deprives the pilot of the ability to actively maneuver and can have dangerous consequences. In addition, reaching high angles of attack is possible only at speeds when the maximum overload does not exceed the permissible value - 600-650 km / h, which is slightly lower than the typical speed of the beginning of an air battle. It is this ambiguity in the effects of super-maneuverability that remains the subject of discussions about the advisability of its use in air combat. However, all newly created fighters, both here and abroad, still have super-maneuverability.

Obviously, the use of all these modes is associated with a certain risk, which can be justified if the probability of winning is maximal, and the probability of defeat is minimal. In fact, this means that in aerial combat, there are situations where the use of super-maneuverability guarantees both success and safety. Otherwise, these modes should not be used, remaining on an equal footing with the enemy.

In fig. 6 shows a picture of air combat, obtained on the basis of mathematical modeling, which illustrates a variant of the effective use of super-maneuverability. From equal conditions, a super-maneuverable fighter (“red”) performs a “Hook” maneuver and launches a rocket, which reaches the target at the moment when its opponent (“blue”), who does not possess super-maneuverability, cannot do this. After that, the "red" fighter, due to the decrease in the turning radius due to the loss of speed, leaves the zone of possible missile launches by the enemy (if he was unaffected): in a dive, moving almost in a straight line, it increases speed - and the enemy missiles do not reach the target.

In combat conditions, the role of "hints", which are given to the pilot by onboard "intelligence" systems, which are increasingly being introduced into flight practice, becomes essential. Based on the analysis of the situation in the battle and the forecast of its development, the system should prompt the pilot to use super-maneuverability as efficiently and safely as possible, or report its impossibility due to dangerous consequences caused by the loss of speed.

In conclusion, it should be said that the use of super-maneuverability raises, in addition to the above-mentioned, a number of problems associated with the aircraft control system, the operation of the on-board weapon system, air combat tactics, and many others. Some of them have now been successfully overcome, the rest are in the research stage. In general, super-maneuverability takes a firm place among the new technical solutions used to create a promising fighter.

GLOSSARY TO ARTICLE

Pitch-up (from French cabrer - to raise up) - rotation of the aircraft around its transverse axis, leading to an increase in the angle of attack.

Roll - the position of an airplane in which the vertical plane of its symmetry is at an angle different from 90 ° to the Earth's surface.

Diving (from the French piquer une těte - to fall upside down) is a descent of an aircraft along a trajectory inclined at an angle of 30-90 ° to the Earth's surface, leading to a rapid loss of altitude and an increase in speed. A dive at an angle of 80-90 ° is called a vertical dive.

Yaw - small periodic angular deviations of the aircraft horizontally in both directions from the direction of its movement when the rudder is straight.

Stall is a critical mode in which an uncontrolled lateral movement of the aircraft occurs.

Pitch is the movement of an airplane, leading to a change in the angle between its longitudinal axis and the horizontal plane. An increase in this angle leads to a pitch-up, a decrease in a dive.

Angle of attack - the angle between a certain conventional line, for example, the chord of an airplane wing, and the direction of the speed of the oncoming air flow.

Corkscrew - descent of the aircraft along a steep helical line with simultaneous rotation around the vertical axis. The controlled spin is one of the aerobatics.

Foreign military review, N1, 1985

According to the NATO military leadership, one of the main tasks facing the aviation of this aggressive imperialist bloc is the conquest and retention of air supremacy, which is considered an indispensable condition for the successful conduct of hostilities by all types of armed forces. It can be solved, for example, by destroying enemy aircraft in the air. In addition, the effectiveness of aviation in the performance of other tasks also largely depends on the ability of the crews to conduct air combat.

Therefore, the United States and other countries of the Alliance are very carefully studying the experience of using aviation in local wars in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, as well as in other military conflicts. Analyzing this experience and taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of modern combat aircraft and their onboard weapons, Western military experts have developed the so-called formula of air combat (for more details on this formula, see: Foreign Military Review, 1984, N1, pp. 47-54 and N2, p. .53-58. - Ed.). It reflects the degree of influence of various factors, mainly the capabilities of aviation technology, on the formation of tactics and the achievement of success in battle. It also considers the factor of maneuverability, under which such indicators as thrust-to-weight ratio, specific load on the wing and the value reflecting the effect of wing mechanization are combined.

The foreign press notes that the task of the pilot in air combat is to realize the advantages of his technology. In addition, he should not give the enemy the opportunity to exploit her weaknesses. Therefore, abroad, when training pilots for conducting air battles, much attention is paid to developing tactical elements, especially maneuvering.

In close combat, the most preferred area of \u200b\u200bpossible attacks, within which guided missiles with infrared homing heads and cannons are effectively used, NATO experts have always considered the rear hemisphere of the target. This area is represented as a cone with an apex angle of 40 ° from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and a height of about 2 km (Fig. 1).

Until now, the tactics of air combat in the air forces of NATO countries were based on two most important principles. First, it is considered unacceptable for an enemy fighter to enter the area of \u200b\u200bpossible attacks of its aircraft. Secondly, using a maneuver, it is recommended to enter the same enemy area yourself. As the foreign military press emphasizes, many of the basic types of maneuvers have actually remained the same as during the Second World War. However, their parameters have changed significantly. At the same time, with the introduction of modern fighters into service, new types of maneuvers appeared.

Western experts divide maneuvers in air combat into three main groups: defensive, offensive, and neutral. Typical defensive positions are considered to be separation from the air enemy and a "controlled barrel" with a large radius of rotation at maximum overload. Offensive features include high-speed Yo-Yo, barrel roll followed by lag pursuit roll and low-speed Yo-Yo. Neutral styles include scissors (horizontal and vertical), scissors and barrel combinations.

The main goal of maneuvering is to take an advantageous positional position in relation to the enemy. In close air combat, maneuvers are a complex of horizontal, vertical, as well as coordinated and forced turns. As foreign experts emphasize, when developing typical maneuvers, it is necessary to take into account the aircraft's ability to perform them at all without losing energy (or with minimal), as well as the following main factors: weapons, electronics, maneuverability and invulnerability (personal protection).

According to Western press reports, the fighters are currently armed with air-to-air missiles, which make it possible to attack a target, in principle, from any angle. These include "Sparrow" (USA), "Skyflash" (UK), as well as a number of others, equipped with semi-active radar homing heads (GSH). But for their launch and guidance, a clear and stable radar signal reflected from the target is required. The capabilities of UR with passive infrared GOS have expanded. In particular, the launch american rocket AIM-9L "Sidewinder", equipped with an advanced homing system, can be carried out in the area of \u200b\u200bpossible attacks with an apex angle of 150 ° from the longitudinal axis of the target aircraft.

Foreign experts note that air battles, the conduct of which has always been particularly difficult, have become even more difficult. To avoid defeat, it is no longer enough to prevent the enemy fighter from entering the rear hemisphere of its aircraft, since the area of \u200b\u200bpossible attacks has expanded significantly and missile launches can be effectively made from almost any angle. The range of weapon use has also increased significantly. For example, the loss by a pilot from the field of view of an enemy aircraft at a distance of 11-18 km can cause defeat, while a few years ago it would not matter much.

According to the British magazine "Flight", in modern conditions, the actions of a fighter pilot are greatly facilitated by the installation of improved electronic equipment on board aircraft, for example, radar and electronic warfare equipment. The former provide automatic radar acquisition and tracking of air targets. The latter detect the launch of missiles by the enemy and interfere with their GOS. All this increases the survivability of the fighter, but ultimately the outcome of the battle still largely depends on the skill of the pilot.

IN last yearsAccording to the foreign military press, one of the directions for improving the characteristics of a fighter is to increase not the maximum flight speed, but maneuverability, and mainly by increasing the thrust-to-weight ratio and improving the bearing properties of the wing. So, the F-16 fighter, in order to take an advantageous position for the attack, can go to large pitch angles, while maintaining a controlled flight mode (the instantaneous change in this angle reaches 55 °). The British Harrier aircraft has the same capabilities due to the change in the thrust vector direction.

NATO experts note that the new capabilities of the air-to-air missile systems and their carriers have led to the appearance of the problem of aircraft identification at long distances. Before launching a missile at a target located at medium or long range, the fighter pilot must be sure that he is striking the enemy, and not his own aircraft. At the same time, it is believed that it is dangerous for a modern fighter to approach a target in order to identify it, but in an air battle he will need to do this. There are several ways to solve this problem. The simplest of these is an attack by a pair of aircraft, one of which flies past the target at high speed and identifies it, while the other is at a long distance from the target in readiness to launch missiles. However, it is noted that this tactic will require the involvement of an additional number of aircraft and, in addition, may lead to the loss of the element of surprise, which is also very important.

Judging by the reports of the foreign press, a new identification system is being developed to solve this problem in the NATO countries. However, the military specialists of this unit note that such equipment will not provide an unambiguous determination of the aircraft's belonging, since the absence of a response to the request may mean the approach of not only an air enemy, but also an aircraft with a faulty identification system.

IN military aviation Great Britain is experimenting with the visual identification of air targets using optical instruments coupled to the fighter's airborne radar. Such devices magnify the image of an approaching aircraft and, in the opinion of British experts, will be very effective.

Taking into account the above and some other factors, the tactics of actions of modern fighters abroad are being built. As some Western experts believe, depending on the situation in air combat, especially in close combat, fighters can use various types of maneuvers and tactics. Below, according to the Western press, are some of them.

The "separation" maneuver is used by a fighter that has lost the chances of success in an air battle in order to prevent the enemy from entering the area of \u200b\u200bpossible attacks of its aircraft. It is performed with maximum overload and maximum thrust. If it is successfully completed, the enemy's attack may be thwarted. However, the latter can make a counter-maneuver.

Fig. 2 shows a defensive maneuver "controlled barrel" with a large radius of rotation and maximum overload. Its main purpose is to deceive an attacker approaching a fighter at high speed. At a certain moment, the pilot turns his aircraft into a "controlled barrel" with a large radius of rotation and with the maximum possible overload. The flight speed of the fighter gradually decreases. Due to the high speed of convergence, the enemy is simply not able to follow the attacked one and slips forward. After the completion of the maneuver, the aircraft switch roles. The Western press notes that it is very important for the pilot of the maneuvering airplane to correctly calculate the time from the beginning to the end of the maneuvering, since late exit from the "barrel" can lead to defeat, and if the maneuver starts earlier, the enemy, having discovered this, can perform a "slide" and thus maintain a favorable position for air combat.

Western experts consider a "coup on a hill" to be a difficult type of maneuver (Fig. 3). It is performed by a fighter approaching a maneuvering target at high speed or from a large angle. Doing it prevents the target from "overshooting". When gaining altitude, the fighter loses speed, which reduces the turning radius at the top of the maneuver trajectory.

According to the magazine "Flight", in an air battle between aircraft with the same power-to-weight ratio in the angular turn rate, a "half roll" maneuver with a combat turn can be used (Fig. 4). It allows one of the aircraft to gradually take a more advantageous position relative to the other. Due to the flight of the fighter, its kinetic energy increases with descent. After that, the pilot performs a "half roll" followed by a turn, which continues until the target leaves the maneuver.

Figure 5 shows a barrel roll followed by a lag behind the aircraft being pursued. It was widely used by Phantom fighter pilots who are capable of turning at high speed. The purpose of the maneuver is to reach the upper part of the enemy's rear hemisphere at a distance of about 2 km and with a turning radius larger than his. The foreign press notes that an attacking aircraft can maintain this position for a long time (subject to an advantage in speed). The advantage of this maneuver lies in the fact that it is difficult for the enemy to observe the attacking fighter, while it is relatively easy for the latter to make a "barrel" climb and take an advantageous position to strike. It is recommended to perform a maneuver when the battle is being fought at too close a distance and it is beneficial for the attacker to move away from the target for better use of his weapon.

Fig. 6. The scissors maneuver

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