Field forts of the Russian Army
at the end of the 19th century.

Part 6.
Field fortifications.

For stubborn defense of the most important, key positions of the defense line, strong points were created. Field fortifications were considered the basis of strong points.

I want to once again draw the attention of readers that the rifle and gun trenches described in the previous articles did not belong to the field fortifications. They were considered temporary defenses when the attack failed. They were left when it was resumed.

In the event that the command made a decision to stop the offensive and go over to the defensive, then under the cover of the infantry and guns, which were openly or in trenches by that moment, reconnaissance of the area was carried out and the construction of field shelters began, into which the units moved as soon as the structures were ready. In some cases, trenches could be built into fortifications. Or vice versa - the trenches could develop into fortifications.

The main differences between fortifications and trenches are:

1. The thickness of the parapet (embankment) provides protection not only from rifle bullets, but also from direct hits of artillery shells.

2. There is a wide and deep ditch in front of the parapet, which prevents enemy infantry from breaking into the positions of our subunits.

3. The outline of the fortification in the plan is not linear, but such as to ensure the defense of the position when attacking both the front and from the flanks, and in some cases, all-round defense.

4. Inside the fortification there are shelters for the garrison of the fortification (traverses, shrapnel ditches, dugouts).

The unit (s) assigned to the defense of the field fortification is called the "garrison fortification". The smallest unit assigned to fortification may be a company. The company commander, in this case, becomes the "commandant of the fortification". If the garrison of the fortification is made up of two or three companies, then the senior company commander is appointed commandant of the fortification. Accordingly, if the fortification is occupied by a battalion, then the battalion commander is appointed as the commandant of the fortification.

As a rule, the garrison is divided into two parts:
a. Warhead garrison (from half to 3/4 of the total personnel of the garrison).
b.The internal reserve of the garrison (from 1/4 to half of the total personnel of the garrison).

In addition, there may be an "external garrison reserve". As a rule, if 2-3 battalion companies are assigned to the garrison, then 2 or 1 companies remain at the disposal of the battalion commander, which together with him are outside the shelter. Their battalion commander can appoint an external reserve. However, the external reserve is not intended to replenish the garrison or enter it into the fortification to support the garrison. The external reserve acts outside the strengthening, but in the interests of keeping the strengthening. Those. conducts counterattacks near the fortification, destroys the enemy, bypassing the fortification, etc.

In relation to the ground level, fortifications can be:

1. Horizontal profiles.
2. In-depth profiles.
3. Sublime profiles.

IN strengthening horizontal profiles the shooter stands at the banquet about 70 cm wide at ground level and is covered with a parapet to chest level
("breastwork of chest height"), i.e. about 1.4 meters. The thickness of the parapet (shaft) at the top is 3.6 - 4.2 meters, at the bottom 5-6 meters. The inner ditch (a ditch that runs behind the parapet), designed for free movement of personnel inside the fortification and placement of reserve shooters, has a depth of 1.24 m, a width at the top of 2.14 meters.
As in the rifle trench, a step is arranged at the front wall of the ditch, which here is not a small step, but is intended for personnel to sit and for a convenient exit upstairs to the breastwork. The space between the front edge of the inner moat and the parapet (rampart) is called a "banquet" and is 70-72 centimeters wide.
The breastwork should slightly lower to the outside so that there would be no impenetrable space ("dead zone") in front of the breastwork.
The outer ditch formed when the shaft is poured (the soil for the breastwork is taken from it) must have a width of at least 4.3 meters, the depth at the escarp wall (the wall facing the breastwork) is not less than 3 meters, the depth of the counter-escarpal wall (the wall facing towards the field), not less than 2.1 meters. Usually, there is much more soil extracted from the outer ditch than is required for the formation of the parapet. Therefore, after the parapet has been poured, the rest of the soil from the ditch is poured to the outside, forming a very flat, wide dump called "glacis".
Glacis purpose:
1. Difficulty in targeting enemy artillery due to the fact that from a distance it is impossible to determine where the glacis ends and the breastwork begins.
2. Taking over part of the shells sent into the parapet and ricocheting them.
3. Difficulty lowering enemy soldiers into the ditch (due to that, thanks to the glacis, the depth of the ditch, as it were, increases).
The height of the glacis at the ditch becomes about 70 cm high and gradually decreases to zero in the field.

IN reinforced in-depth profilesthe banquet is not done at ground level, but is lowered by 35-40 cm, and the parapet is poured lower than in the reinforcement of the horizontal profile.
The height of the parapet is 1.0-1.05 meters here. Accordingly, the inner moat of the fortification breaks off 35-40 centimeters deeper.
The advantage of reinforcing in-depth profiles is that it is less visible from the enemy.

In areas where the terrain is lowered in comparison with the surrounding landscape or where it is necessary to dominate in height over the enemy, fortifications of an elevated profile can be erected.

IN strengthening sublime profiles the banquet, on the contrary, rises 35-40 centimeters above ground level. Accordingly, the height of the parapet increases by the same 35-40 cm.
However, this type of fortification is more visible to the enemy and is more easily hit by it. Therefore, the strengthening of the elevated profile can be arranged only in exceptional cases, when its disadvantages are compensated for by the given advantage (increase in the firing and observation range).

From the author. It is worth remembering that at the end of the 19th century, the infantry and cavalry of the opposing sides mainly fought among themselves. There was not as much artillery as it became during the First World War and its support for the attacking infantry was not very significant. Thus, all the difficulties of storming the fortifications fell on the shoulders of the infantry. Just imagine - first you need to overcome the glacis, and this is an absolutely smooth strip 30-40 meters wide without the slightest cover. Then you need to somehow go down into the moat from the ridge of the glacis along the counter-escarpous wall. And this is almost two human heights. Then go up the escarpment wall. And this is more than 3 meters. You can't do without stairs. Climb onto the shaft. And only then you can dash along the shaft about 4-5 meters wide with bayonets. And all this time, the attacking soldiers are exposed to merciless rifle fire at the garrison, which is hidden behind the parapet and has the ability to easily find targets and carefully aim. Whereas the attackers, at best, see only the heads of the enemy shooters above the parapet and are forced to alternate their fire with movement. This puts the attackers at a distinct disadvantage.

So in those conditions, field fortifications were a tough nut to crack.

In the plan, all field fortifications are subdivided into:

1. Open, in which the parapet with moats covers only the front and flanks, the back side (gorge)
remains open. Such a fortification cannot withstand an attack from the rear and is usually erected where the enemy's attack from the rear is excluded by natural obstacles. As a rule, such a strengthening is called " lunette".

The dimensions of the lunette in the plan are not specified in the Manual. Based on the fact that the infantry company had about 200 riflemen, it can be assumed that the lunette could occupy no more than 200-250 meters along the front.

In plan, the lunette was an open quadrangle. The left and right front parts of the lunette were called the left and right faces, respectively. The faces in relation to each other could be at an angle from 0 to 60 degrees. Those. at an angle of 0 degrees, the left and right faces merged into one front face.
The left and right parts of the lunette, which were rotated in relation to their face by 30-60 degrees, were called, respectively, the left and right flanks ( V.Yu.G. - This is not a slip of the tongue. It is flan to, not flan r... The left and right flanks are the extremities of the formation of the unit, and the flanks are parts of the fortification to repel attacks from the flanks)/

The back open side of the reinforcement is called "gorja" or "beaver part of the lunette". There may be a trench for reserves in the gorge. By its structure, this is an ordinary trench with full profiles.

From the author. It is curious that the breastwork of the trench for the reserves is facing the front and not the rear, which would be more logical. In this case, the lunette garrison would have the ability to repel an attack from the rear. However, it is prescribed in the Instruction. Obviously, for the reason that the lunette is not intended for defense from the rear and usually rests with its flanks on natural obstacles (river, swamp, steep mountain, settlement, etc.).

The space bounded in front and on the sides by a moat and behind the gorges is called the "courtyard of the lunette". The manual does not describe the purpose of the courtyard.
Shrapnel ditches, traverses, dugouts, exits to the rear, latrines can be arranged in the inner ditch of the lunette, as in the shooting trenches.
Due to the fact that the steady rest is intended for long-term defense, it is considered obligatory to wear the steepness of the inner moat, the back wall of the shaft (parapet).

Nothing is said in the Manual regarding the placement of field guns in the lunette, as well as the arrangement of various kinds of auxiliary structures (shelters for ammunition, command shelters and observation posts, etc.), household and utility structures. Obviously, all this is decided by the commander of the garrison, based on the availability of time, effort, materials.

2. Close, in which a parapet with moats covers the fortification from all sides. Common
the name of such fortifications " redoubt".

The difference between a redoubt and a lunette, first of all, is that, in addition to the front faces, the redoubt also has a gorzha, facing the rear and intended to repel an enemy attack from the rear.

In the figure, the floor front (i.e., the front facing the field towards the enemy) is shown straight, although it may be the same as that of the above lunette (and vice versa).

At the redoubt in the gorzha façade, two entrances, each 3-4 meters wide, are usually left, which are usually covered by two trenches of full profiles facing the rear. In addition, a parapet (also called a traverse) can be poured behind the inner moat (towards the courtyard) of the gorge, which protects the soldiers from bullets flying from the front from the side of the floor and flank faces. also because of this parapet, shooters can fire inside the courtyard if the enemy burst into the courtyard through the floor or flank faces.
If the time and conditions of the defense permit, then from the junction points of the flank faces and the hot facet, trenches of full profiles can be torn off in both directions parallel to the floor face. The so-called "mustache
redoubt. "The mustache is not only intended to enhance the defensive capabilities of the redoubt. The mustache can hide most of personnel, if the redoubt was subjected to heavy artillery fire.

Also, with a lack of time or if the danger of an attack from the rear is small, then the gorzha face can be just a trench with full profiles.

From the author. All these names of the elements of the lunette, redoubt today may not have a special meaning, but in those days every infantry soldier was obliged to know these terms so that the commander would not have to explain to the soldier for a long time where to run or vice versa, so that the soldier could clearly and clearly report to the commander what happened and where. And to a person reading today, say, "War and Peace", it becomes clearer why this place on the Borodino field was called "Rayevsky's Battery". General Raevsky did not command an artillery unit. He was responsible for the defense of the strongpoint, which was based on a fort structure called a "battery".

Usually the garrison of a redoubt consists of two or three infantry companies. Regarding the placement of artillery in the redoubt, the Manual does not indicate anything. Obviously, it is believed that field artillery should remain the senior commander's mobile fire reserve, and not be tied to specific fortresses.

The inner reserve of the redoubt garrison is usually located in the inner moat of the gorge façade.

Redoubt construction is a costly undertaking. The manual indicates that the construction of a redoubt with a capacity of two companies with a front of 300 meters (only earthworks with medium ground) requires 16-17 hours of work of 1600 people.

In the inner ditch of the redoubt, as in the rifle trenches and with the same requirements and distances, shrapnel ditches, traverses, latrines and dugouts are arranged. At the same time, it is recommended to pour a protective soil layer about 30 centimeters thick on the dugout board roof.

All the forts of the Russian Army as of 1897 are exhausted by the structures described in parts 1-6 of this article. We see that such as flashes, ravelins, etc. have disappeared from the list of forts. Experience russo-Japanese War 1904-05 will lead to new changes. There will be single trenches for prone shooting, constructions for machine guns, deep shelters, etc.

Sources and Literature:

1. Podchertkov, Yakovlev. Sapper d'lo for phota and cavalier. P.P. Soikin's Printing House, St. Petersburg, 1897
2..F.Pi.D. Feld-Pionierdienst aller Waffen. Entwurf 1912. Muenhen. 1912
3.Guide to military fortifications. Military publishing house of the USSR Ministry of Defense. Moscow 1962
4. Kalibernov E.S. Engineering Troops Officer's Handbook. Moscow. Military publishing house. 1989

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Subtitles

Fortification item

The subject of fortification is the study of the properties, location rules, methods of erection and methods of attack and defense of fortification structures. Closures and barriers are very often provided by the terrain itself; therefore fortification studies the improvement of local natural closures and barriers and their reinforcement with closures and artificial barriers.

Fortifications artificially create favorable conditions for hostilities for the side using them and contribute to inflicting the greatest harm on the enemy with the least losses of their own troops (near Port Arthur, the losses of the attackers were 16 times higher than the losses of the defenders).

By the force of its closures and barriers, fortification, as it were, replaces a certain part of manpower, that is, troops, freeing up a corresponding number of them to move to another point, and thus serves the principle of concentration of forces at a decisive moment at a decisive point of the battlefield or theater of military operations.

Fortification as a science of artificial closures and barriers is divided into 3 sections: I - field, II - long-term and III - temporary.

Fortification building

Fortification - a building designed for sheltered placement and the most effective use of weapons, military equipment, command posts, as well as to protect the troops, population and facilities of the country's rear from the effects of enemy weapons.

Fortifications are divided into field and permanent. Fortification is engaged in the development of structures, methods of erection and use of field and long-term fortifications.

Field fortification

Field fortification considers closures and barriers that serve for field troops who rarely stay in one place for a long time and therefore are erected immediately before a battle and retain their significance only for the duration of a battle in a given area. Accordingly, the time during which field fortifications are built and serve is usually measured in hours and rarely exceeds one day; the troops themselves are the labor force during their construction; a tool, the so-called trench, included in the marching equipment of the troops, and the material is mainly earth with the addition of sometimes the simplest forest and some other materials found at the place of work. Field fortifications can be divided into:

• A) fortifications, representing a combination of closure, positions for action by fire and barriers to assault;
• B) trenches, giving a closure and position for action by fire;
• C) barriers giving only closure;
• D) artificial obstacles giving only an obstacle to the assault,

and finally

• E) various kinds of adaptation of local items to defense as a way to obtain results characteristic of previous types of buildings, but with the least expenditure of labor and time.

A) Field fortifications. On any terrain that we occupy for defense, there are several points of particular importance, keeping which in our power, we impede the actions of the enemy and facilitate the actions of our troops. These will most often be the commanding heights from which the neighboring sectors of our position and the access to the front and flanks of our position are fired upon. For the defense of such especially important points of the terrain, small military units with a force of 1 to 4 companies are usually assigned for the entire duration of the battle. These military units are deprived of the ability to move into spaces that are less affected, and yet their losses can reach significant proportions, since the importance of these points brings on them intensified enemy fire. To paralyze these disadvantages, military units in especially important points of the terrain provide fortifications at such points that give better closure, a good shooting position and a serious obstacle to the assault. With little time for their construction (up to 12 hours), field fortifications are called hasty; for a longer time, they are improved, the degree of their resistance is increased, and they are called reinforced.

Parapet

Every field fortification consists of an earthen embankment, called a breastwork (from German: Brust-wehr - chest cover), adapted for shooting from behind and covering the troops located behind, and an outer ditch, which gives land for filling the breastwork and serving as a barrier to the assault. Drawing 1 represents a perspective view of a section of field fortification cut out of the ground, the shaded part of the drawing constitutes the so-called reinforcement profile, that is, a section by a vertical plane perpendicular to the direction of the parapet in the plan. The drawing shows the dimensions of the main parts of the fortification, and the height of the embankments and the depth of the excavations are considered from the local horizon, depicted on the profiles of the fortification buildings by a dotted line with a mark \u003d 0.

The height of the parapet must be sufficient to cover the troops stationed behind it from sight and shots from the field. Covering from gaze is achieved when the parapet is as tall as a person, about 2.5 arshins; such a parapet will not protect against shots, because the bullets and shell fragments directed at the fortification do not fly horizontally, but with some declination, and, therefore, it is necessary either to increase the height of the parapet, or to arrange an inner moat. With the existence of an internal ditch, the parapet can be relatively lower, the fortification becomes less noticeable from the field and it is easier to camouflage it, that is, make it less noticeable to the enemy; in addition, the parapet is poured from both sides, due to which the construction of the fortification moves faster. Usually field fortifications and there are two moats - external and internal. To adapt the parapet for shooting, a step is sprinkled on it, on which people stand during shooting. This step is called a banquet, or shooting step; it should be below the crest of the breastwork to the chest height, taken at 2 yards, so that the arrow standing at the banquet, the inner crest of the breastwork (line of fire) falls at the height of the chest. If the height of the parapet is less than 2.5 arshins, for example, 2 arshins, then the banquet will have to be on the local horizon; with an even lower parapet height, the shooting step will be below the horizon, in the inner ditch. The lower the parapet, the deeper the inner moat should be. The size of the fortification depends on the size of the detachment or garrison it provides. The shape of the fortification in the plan is determined by the terrain and the intended directions of fire and other actions of its troops and the enemy. They usually try to make the fortification area limited by the defensive fence more compressed in the direction of enemy shots in order to reduce the likelihood of being hit by shells. With all the variety of sizes and forms of fortifications, the latter can be reduced to two main types: open fortifications and closed fortifications.

Fortifications

Open fortifications do not have a defensive fence from the rear or from a gorge and are set up when the place occupied by the fortification is secured from an attack from the rear by some natural obstacle or by troops located behind. Closed fortifications have a defensive fence on all sides and are erected for a stubborn and completely independent defense, when an attack from all sides can be expected. The location of the breastwork of the fortification (in the plan) is influenced by the terrain, to the bends of which the fortification is applied, and the desired direction of fire from the fortification: in which direction it is supposed to shoot, the corresponding section or fracture of the breastwork also turns in that direction. To avoid the longitudinal defeat of the breastwork, which is very dangerous for the defenders, they try to give direct sections of the defensive fence such a direction in which their continuation would fall to points that are hardly accessible to the enemy; parts of the fence that do not meet these requirements should be as short as possible. The closed fortifications used in field fortification are called redoubts; open - lunette and redan.

Artificial obstacles are intended to detain the enemy under strong and well-aimed fire from a position or fortification and thereby increase his losses from fire. In a particular case, when located at the breastwork itself, such as, for example, the outer moat of the fortification, they frustrate the attacker before attacking with bayonets. In general, artificial obstacles are located at a distance of 50-150 steps from the line of fire and thus force the enemy, upset by overcoming the obstacle, to stay for some time under the fire of the defender. It is unprofitable to carry artificial obstacles further 150 steps from the line of fire due to the difficulty of observing them in fog and twilight and the increase in the length of the obstacle along the front. The strength of artificial obstacles lies in their unexpectedness for the enemy and in the impossibility of destroying them from a distance with artillery fire, therefore they must be positioned secretly from sight and, if possible, from shots from the field; they achieve this by erecting an earthen embankment in front of the obstacles - glacis.

Artificial obstacles strengthen the defense of the most important points of the defensive location or place them in weakest points in order to force the enemy to abandon their attack; such weak points are usually short faces or outgoing corners, in general points from which the terrain ahead is weakly fired. The dimensions of artificial obstacles are determined by the requirement of the difficulty of overcoming and destroying them: for horizontal obstacles, the width is at least 2-6 sazh .; for vertical - a height of at least 2.5 arsh .; length - not allowing or difficult to walk. The material is mainly earth, wood, iron, gunpowder and water. With the help of the earth, an external moat for fortifications and wolf pits are arranged (Fig. 7).

Wolf pits do not represent a sufficiently serious obstacle and cannot stand long service; they are often reinforced with other obstacles or driven into the bottom of the holes and between them the stakes pointed at the top. Chess stakes, a notch and palisades are made of wood. Zaseka (Fig. 8) - one of the most serious and most difficult to destroy obstacles; she settles very soon; sometimes the spotting is strengthened by braiding the trees with wire. If there is enough wire, then arrange a wire net (Fig. 9); the wire net is an excellent barrier that resists artillery fire better than any other; consists of several rows of stakes driven into the ground, between which a wire is stretched in different directions.

Minefield

With the help of gunpowder, land mines are arranged, which are divided into ordinary, stone-throwing and self-explosive, or torpedoes. Ordinary and stone-throwing bombs, when the enemy approaches them, explode by the defenders with the help of a fire drive, electric or cord; torpedoes operate automatically, under the weight of people passing over them. Water-assisted obstacles include dams and floods. A stream running parallel to the front of the defensive position of our troops or perpendicular to this front, from the enemy to us, is blocked off with dams and gets a dam on high banks, that is, an increase in the depth of the stream, and on low banks - a flood. The construction of dams and floods is very time-consuming, and therefore they are rarely used in field warfare. E) The adaptation of local objects to defense is considered in a special section called "the application of field physics to the terrain." This applied part examines the application of general rules derived from the theoretical part to the most typical cases on a real terrain, always more or less uneven and abundant with local objects, such as groves, houses, fences, ditches, ravines, rivers, heights, gorges, etc. The application of field defensiveness to a terrain teaches us how to strengthen their natural defensive properties, how to organize stubborn defense, and, as far as possible, provides for all the cases that occur when taking defensive positions.

Long-term fortification

Long-term philosophy examines closures and barriers that serve to strengthen the defense of especially militarily important strategic points in the country, the significance of which usually becomes clear many years before the war and remains for the entire duration of hostilities. Accordingly, long-term fortifications and the fortresses formed by them are built for years, serve, retaining their importance, for tens and even hundreds of years, and defend themselves for months; civilian workers and specialists are working on their construction; tools - whatever you need, the material is not only earth, but also stone, brick, concrete, iron.

The goal of long-term F. is to resist with the least strength as long as possible. For this, it is necessary to have fortress buildings that are safe from assault, and to ensure the living forces of defense from defeat.

• The first condition is achieved by the construction of a closed defensive fence with an obstacle, bombarded with strong fire from buildings that are invulnerable from a distance; Such an obstacle is usually the outer moat, which is fired by longitudinal canister fire.
• The second is the construction of premises that are safe from the most destructive shells of siege artillery.

The stronger the fortifications erected for the defense of a given strategic point, the weaker its garrison can be; the strength of fortifications depends on time and money... Long-term fortifications force the attacker to spend a lot of time on the supply of siege weapons for their destruction and on the very process of destruction, and thus increase the duration of the resistance of the point reinforced by them to the limits unattainable without the assistance of long-term F., other conditions being equal. The expenditure made at the same time for the construction of permanent fortifications gives savings in manpower for many years, during which these fortifications serve, retaining their importance.

The goal of long-term physics has always remained unchanged, but the methods of achieving it have changed and will constantly change with the development and improvement of technology applied to military affairs. Any strengthening of means of destruction immediately caused a corresponding increase in means of shelter. This shows what a close connection has always existed between artillery and F., and it is clear what an irresistible influence the first had on the second, and especially on the details of its structures. The general arrangement of long-term fortifications was decisively influenced by the methods of defense and the size of the garrison, which itself depended on the size of the field armies. The most important moments in the development of long-term artillery were caused by equally dramatic improvements in artillery and changes in the number of armies; therefore, the history of artillery can be divided into the following four periods:

1 period of throwing machines - from the most ancient times to firearms, that is, until the XIV century. ;

2 period of smooth artillery - before the introduction of rifled artillery, that is, until the middle of the 19th century. ;

3 period of rifled artillery - before the introduction of high-explosive bombs, that is, until the year;

4 period of high-explosive bombs - up to the present.

Typical representatives of the first period of long-term F. are stone defensive fences in the form of high stone or brick walls with steep sides and a flat upper surface on which the defenders of the fortress were placed (Fig. 10).

The walls of the ancient fences were interrupted from place to place by towers, which served as strongholds for the fence and prevented the enemy who appeared on the wall from spreading throughout the fence; from the towers they fired at the upper surface of the wall and guarded the communication of the interior of the fortress with the field. During this period, long-term F. was in a brilliant state; thick and high stone walls were secured from the escalade and were not afraid of modern throwing machines.

XIV century.

To hinder the production of landslides with artillery fire, part of the wall was lowered below the horizon, and an outer moat was formed; for the same purpose, a small embankment called glacis was erected near the counter-escarp. Those protruding from behind the fence of the tower, or, as they were called, bastei and rondels, had the inconvenience that part of the ditch in front of their semicircular head remained in dead space, that is, they were not fired upon from neighboring rondels; to correct this shortcoming, from the second half of the XVI century. the protruding parts of the rondels began to be limited by straight lines tangential to the previous curve. The result was a defensive structure called a bastion. Part of the fence between the two bastions was called a curtain. The curtain with two semi-bastions adjacent to it constituted a section of the fence called the bastion front.

XVI century

Concrete

High explosive bombs are the latest modern threat made by technology. Landmines - oblong shells stuffed with highly explosive compounds (pyroxylin, melinite, etc.), possess a terrible destructive power. In the experiments in Malmaison, one high-explosive bomb was enough to destroy the caponier and the powder magazine of the previous building, with brick vaults covered with earth for 3-5 arsh. I had to resort to a material stronger than brick and change the dimensions of the walls and especially the vaults of the casemated buildings; this material turned out to be concrete. It contains cement, sand and crushed stone or gravel; the mixture forms a thick mass which hardens quickly and then presents remarkable strength and toughness. For an average size of buildings, a concrete vault of fathom thickness should be considered not only unconditionally reliable in the present, but also with a certain margin of safety against future, even more powerful means of destruction.

Currently, all casemated guard buildings are erected from concrete, and partly defensive buildings are made of concrete, partly combining concrete with armor. Armored closures are very common in Western Europe, but in our country they are used relatively rarely due to the high cost and strength that has not been proven by solid experiments. The invention of high-explosive bombs caused the following changes in the profile of permanent fortifications: breastwork thickness increased to 42 feet; the brick clothes of the outer moat were replaced with concrete ones; more often they began to resort to gratings, which suffered little from the fire of siege artillery; Concrete mattresses were used to cover the bases of the walls to protect the walls from the bombs that penetrate below the base of the foundation and act as mines. If technology devises even more powerful means of destruction and destruction, it will also point to the means to repel these blows.

The use of fortresses was constantly contested: they say that fortresses are expensive, that, requiring large garrisons, they divert a lot of forces from the field armies, often do not take part in the war, that one can shield from the fortress with equal forces, and, finally, that with current state martial arts fortress can be mastered with little strength and soon. As Professor Cui aptly put it, the value of a fortress is an insurance premium paid for the safety of the state. Fortresses, of course, require a lot of troops to defend themselves, especially for today's large fortresses; but a lot or a little is a relative concept; with the increase in armies, the garrisons of fortresses naturally increased. At the same time, fortresses make field troops free, making it possible to defend the most important points with relatively small forces. If, in the course of hostilities, the fortress does not take direct part in the war, then it serves as a center for organizing militias and reinforcements (Lyon in the city) and a warehouse for combat and life supplies; and the mere existence of a fortress, even if it was not included in the sphere of hostilities, can decisively influence the plan of the campaign.

The high cost of modern fortresses forces them to be erected exclusively in points that are especially important from a strategic point of view; you can only shield yourself from a fortress that has no strategic importance, the possession of which is not necessary for the advancing army. Otherwise, such a barrier is usually very expensive, an example of which is the famous Turkish quadrangle of fortresses in war - d. The ability to capture a fortress quickly and with small forces is usually based on the assumption that the fortress is completely unprepared for defense at the beginning of the siege, on the inability of the garrison to take action. , panic, etc., and on such unsteady grounds, projects of accelerated attacks are drawn up.

The opponents of the fortresses confirm their arguments by referring to the rapid fall of some French fortresses in the war - d. But these fortresses are special for the criminal negligence with which they resisted. And to date, the only successful attempt to create an accelerated attack must be considered the attack of Vauban; his attack was deliberate, tested, studied, and declared correct. Fortress opponents forget the brilliant role they played in many campaigns. Almost all recent campaigns boil down, in essence, to sieges of fortresses and end with their surrender: the war for Belgian independence - the surrender of the Antwerp citadel; the Danish war - the capture of the Düppel fortifications; American - by the fall of Charleston; Eastern war - the city is reduced to the sieges of Silistria, Sevastopol and Kars. The second period of the war - since the time of the taxation of Metz - is nothing more than a war of serfdom on a grand scale. In the last Eastern war - the temporary fortifications of Plevna delay the campaign for a long time; if Plevna were a fortress, it would not have surrendered so soon from hunger and could have had a more decisive influence. Finally, in the clash with China in the city of the fortresses of Taku and Tian-Tzin they play an outstanding role; with their fall, the way to Beijing was opened and a base on the seashore was provided for the operating allied army.

With the modern rapid organization of large armies and their rapid movement along numerous railways, the importance of fortresses as the only means for repelling unexpected attacks in large masses has increased even more. The unique and enormous benefits they bring makes the use of long-term fortifications inevitable.

In the first world war only two fortresses fully fulfilled their task: the large French fortress Verdun and the small Russian fortress Osovets.

Long-term fortification is a branch of fortification, which includes preparing the territory of the state for war, issues of building fortresses and their elements. Its structures must resist the action of means of destruction, for which the most durable materials are used during their construction (soil, stone, brick, wood, concrete, reinforced concrete, armor).

Temporary fortification

See also: Mannerheim Line

Provisional F. examines temporary fortifications, which in terms of structure are a cross between field and long-term. IN peaceful time they are built on points of secondary importance or, due to lack of financial resources, they are trying to replace long-term fortifications with them. In wartime or immediately before the start of the war, temporary fortifications are erected at the most important unfortified points of the theater of impending actions, at strategic points, the significance of which was revealed only during the war, and at important points of already captured enemy territory.

The time that can be available for the construction of a temporary fortification varies from several days to several months; also, materials and working means will be different, therefore the buildings themselves receive very diverse strength. If the time is several months, then you can work as civilian workers, using concrete and other materials, the same as in long-term buildings, but the dimensions of the profile will be smaller, the defense of the ditches is often open, the barriers are horizontal, the number of casemates is very limited, and in general the structure simplified. Buildings of this kind are called semi-permanent; they resist large siege calibers, but, being weaker than long-term ones, require more troops for their defense. In no case can they replace permanent fortifications, and relying on this replacement would lead to serious disappointments.

When erecting temporary fortifications at strategic points, the significance of which became clear immediately after the declaration of war, usually there is time for several weeks, as workers - troops, material - earth, wood, iron. Such structures resist the action of siege weapons no larger than 6-inch caliber and are called temporary. But sometimes it is necessary to strengthen points that suddenly turned out to be important, after the enemy crossed our border, under the daily threat of the appearance of enemy troops; then they start with hasty field buildings, working exclusively with troops, entrenching tools and improvised materials, and then, if the enemy gives a few days to the deadline, hasty buildings gradually turn into reinforced ones. This is how the stage points, defile defile positions, taxation lines, gaps between forts during the siege of fortresses, etc., are strengthened. As they develop further, the reinforced buildings are transformed into temporary ones.

The general nature of temporary fortified points is the same as for long-term ones: there are temporary fences, temporary maneuverable fortresses, separate forts, etc. Most often, temporary forts have to be built: they are erected not only during the construction of temporary fortresses and fortified camps, but also during the construction of temporary fences, which usually consist of forts connected by lines of weaker profiles. Existing permanent fortresses are sometimes reinforced with temporary fortifications, for example by surrounding them with temporary forts or setting up temporary intermediate strongholds at too large intervals between permanent forts, building forward strongholds, increasing the number of spare powder magazines, etc. temporary fortifications, it is usually distinguished by greater activity (Sevastopol, -), which is unreasonable to credit the temporary F. in comparison with the long-term, forgetting what such activity costs (over 100,000 people were out of action near Sevastopol).

So, when building temporary fortifications, the possible gain in time is of great importance, and therefore all measures should be taken so that, after the order to build temporary fortifications has been given, the latter, as soon as possible, are able to provide the enemy with proper resistance. To this end, even in peacetime, it is necessary to develop projects to strengthen the most probable strategic points of wartime, to prepare all organizational part and even keep essential materials ready nearby; Of course, all this should be kept in the strictest secrecy, since the unexpected appearance of such structures for the enemy is an essential means of compensating for their inevitable weakness when modern means defeat.

Fortification in Russia

The most common artificial obstacles were tyn (palisade), part (chess stakes) and garlic (the same part, but made of iron). Stone fences have been in use since the middle of the 11th century. (Kiev, founded by Yaroslav in the city; Novgorod city), and they were often located together with wooden and earthen fences. The walls were built from natural stones or from

Fortification is the science of man-made barriers and closings that reinforce the position of regiments during combat. The theory of this discipline was developed by Albrecht Durer.

Study subject

The properties, location rules, methods of erecting buildings for defense and attack act as it. Barriers and closures are often created by the terrain itself. Fortification explores the improvement of natural local formations and their reinforcement with artificial structures. Structures for the side using them create favorable conditions for combat. The fortification contributes to inflicting the greatest harm on the enemy with minimal personal losses.

The dead power of obstacles and closures in a certain way replaces living resources - soldiers, freeing up a certain amount of them to move to other points. In this way, buildings provide a concentration of forces in decisive moments at the most important points of the battlefield.

Fortification: general concept

It is a building that is intended for closed placement and the most effective use of weapons, command posts, military equipment, as well as to ensure the protection of soldiers, rear facilities and the population from enemy attacks. For the implementation of these tasks, a permanent or temporary fortification can be erected. Within the framework of science, its design, method of creation and use are studied.

Field buildings

A fortification can be created for units that rarely stay long in the same area. Such structures are erected immediately before the battle and retain their significance only for its period. The time during which a field fortification serves is usually measured in hours and rarely exceeds one day in duration. The erection of buildings is carried out by the soldiers themselves using the tool included in the camping equipment. A field fortification is a structure made of earth with the addition, in some cases, of the simplest forest or other materials that can be found in a given area.

Classification

Field buildings can be divided into the following categories:

In addition, in the field, local items can be adapted to create a building. This method also allows you to achieve the same results as from the construction of the above structures, but with the least investment of time and materials.

The most important points

On any terrain where it is supposed to keep the defense, you can find several points of particular importance. Holding them makes it difficult for the enemy to act and makes it easier to move your own soldiers. As a rule, the commanding heights act as field fortifications. From them, shelling of areas adjacent to the location is being conducted, and access to the flanks and fronts of the position is also visible. The defense of these points is carried out throughout the battle. For this, 1-4 companies are allocated. These parts are deprived of the ability to move in space, less susceptible to shelling. However, their losses can be quite significant, since the importance of these points brings on them increased enemy fire actions.

To prevent attacks and assaults, a fortification is erected around each such point. This provides a better closure, a serious obstruction and a good firing position. With a short battle (up to 12 hours), such fortifications are built hastily. With longer battles, structures are strengthened, improved, increasing the level of their resistance. Such structures are called already reinforced.

Continuous defense

Depending on the nature of the battle, a permanent or temporary underground fortification structure can be erected. The structure can also be created on the surface. Permanent structures are barriers and closures designed to enhance the protection of critical strategic points in the country. The significance of such territories, as a rule, becomes clear long before the outbreak of hostilities and persists throughout their entire length. That is why any such fortification serves for several tens, or even hundreds of years, although it takes months to defend itself.

To create the structure, civilian workers are involved. Various tools and materials are used during construction (earth, iron, concrete, brick, stone). Such structures are erected to provide continuous defense with the least amount of force. This requires the presence of a fortress, protected from assault. This is ensured by erecting a closed defensive fence with an obstacle that will allow shelling from structures that are invulnerable from a distance. A triangular fortification structure can serve as such a fortification. In the fortresses in front of the moat, such a structure provided maximum defense. The shelling was carried out with longitudinal grapeshot fire.

Ravelin

This building is a triangular fortification. It is located between the bastions and serves for cross-fire. With the help of it, the approaches to the fortress bypass are protected and neighboring fortifications are supported. The walls of which the embankment consisted in the fortification had a height of 1-1.5 m lower than in the central building. Capturing a ravelin thus facilitates its shelling.

Design features

The stronger the fortification is, the weaker the garrison can be. The reinforcement of the structure depends on time and money supply. Permanent structures force the enemy to bring siege weapons to destroy them. It all takes a lot of time. This, in turn, allows active resistance and defense to continue. The purpose of such structures is always unchanged. Meanwhile, the methods of its implementation are constantly being improved with the development of military equipment. With any strengthening of means of destruction, adjustments are immediately made to the structure of the fortifications.

Stages of building development

The most important stages are due to a rather sharp increase in the number of the Armed Forces and the improvement of artillery. In this regard, long-term fortification went through the following periods:

Temporary fortifications

By their design, they are intermediate structures between permanent and field structures. In peacetime, they are erected at secondary strategic points. In some cases, for example, with insufficient funding, temporary buildings are replaced with permanent fortifications. During the period of hostilities, they are erected in the most important areas of the upcoming battles, as well as at points located in the already occupied territories, the significance of which is found out directly during the battle.

Construction features

The time that can be spent on construction ranges from several days to months. Used for construction different materials, tools and means. In this regard, the structures themselves have different gains. If there are several months for the construction, then civilian workers are involved. In such cases, concrete and other raw materials used in the construction of permanent fortifications are used as material.

A significant difference is noted in the design of the fences. In temporary fortifications, the number of casemates is very limited, barriers are horizontal, the defense of ditches is carried out in an open way. These structures provide protection against large siege weapons. But since they are weaker than long-term ones, they require more troops.

General nature of the fortifications

Temporary points can be represented as fences, forts, and so on. Their general character is similar to that of permanent buildings. Forts are most often erected. They are built during the construction of not only reinforced camps, but also weaker fortifications. In some cases, different types of barriers and closures are used to protect one point. So, fortresses are surrounded by forts or intermediate points are arranged at large distances between permanent structures. In addition, forward points are being built to increase spare ammunition storage. Large garrisons provide an active defense, but in these cases, losses can be significant. So, for example, during the defense of Sevastopol in 1854-55. more than 100 thousand people were out of action.

Discipline development in Russia

The origin of the fortification coincided with the beginning of the settlement. The development of science went through the same stages as in Western European territory, but much later. This was due to unfavorable historical events. Defensive earthen fences served as the first shelters from enemy attacks. Such designs were used until the 9th century. In Western Europe, by that time they had already been replaced by stone buildings. From the 4th century, wooden structures began to be erected in Russia, and at the end of the 11th century, parapets appeared. They were first planks and then logs. The fire was fired over the parapet. Wooden fences were reinforced with crowned towers. They were built mostly hexagonal. Within their walls loopholes were made - special windows for cannon and rifle fire.

Defense Ancient Rus was carried out from numerous separately located fortified points and guard lines. The first were called towns or cities, depending on their size. Any locality necessarily fortified to protect against robbers who attacked both during external and internecine wars. Residential areas, not classified as cities, were surrounded by prison. These fortifications were also placed on the border with states in which military art was poorly developed.

19th century

During this century, military engineering literature appeared and spread quite widely in Russia. The domestic fortification school enjoyed undoubted respect in the West at that time. Outstanding engineering designs were brought to life at the turn of the century. So, every fortification of the times Patriotic War 1812 illustrated the talent and originality of the thought of designers. However, the fortifications were practically not involved in the battles. It depended on the intensity of the battles. Rapid retreats, followed by similar surprise attacks and the incompleteness of the main lines of fortifications, did not allow either side to conduct a thoughtful and consistent siege. Nevertheless, every existing fortification during the Patriotic War fulfilled its task.

An example is the battle at the Dinaburg walls. Marshal Oudinot, unable to capture the bridgehead, tried to arrange something like a siege. However, he met resistance from the actively and skillfully defending garrison. After that, deprived of engineering detachments and artillery, the marshal was forced to retreat. Such results were given by each fortification during the Patriotic War of 1812. If there were more such buildings, the course of the struggle would have been completely different.