Basic laws of classical physics. Why do the laws of the photoelectric effect contradict classical physics? The emergence of “new physics”

It is natural and correct to be interested in the world around us and the patterns of its functioning and development. That is why it is reasonable to pay attention to natural sciences, for example, physics, which explains the very essence of the formation and development of the Universe. The basic physical laws are not difficult to understand. Schools introduce children to these principles at a very young age.

For many, this science begins with the textbook “Physics (7th grade)”. The basic concepts of thermodynamics are revealed to schoolchildren; they become familiar with the core of the main physical laws. But should knowledge be limited to school? What physical laws should every person know? This will be discussed later in the article.

Science physics

Many of the nuances of the science described are familiar to everyone from early childhood. This is due to the fact that, in essence, physics is one of the areas of natural science. It tells about the laws of nature, the action of which influences the life of everyone, and in many ways even ensures it, about the characteristics of matter, its structure and patterns of movement.

The term "physics" was first recorded by Aristotle in the fourth century BC. Initially, it was synonymous with the concept of “philosophy”. After all, both sciences had a single goal - to correctly explain all the mechanisms of the functioning of the Universe. But already in the sixteenth century, as a result of the scientific revolution, physics became independent.

General law

Some basic laws of physics are applied in various branches of science. In addition to them, there are those that are considered to be common to all of nature. This is about

It implies that the energy of each closed system during the occurrence of any phenomena in it is certainly conserved. Nevertheless, it is capable of transforming into another form and effectively changing its quantitative content in different parts of the named system. At the same time, in an open system, the energy decreases provided that the energy of any bodies and fields that interact with it increases.

In addition to the above general principle, physics contains basic concepts, formulas, laws that are necessary for the interpretation of processes occurring in the surrounding world. Exploring them can be incredibly exciting. Therefore, this article will briefly discuss the basic laws of physics, but in order to understand them more deeply, it is important to pay full attention to them.

Mechanics

Many basic laws of physics are revealed to young scientists in grades 7-9 at school, where such a branch of science as mechanics is more fully studied. Its basic principles are described below.

1. Galileo's law of relativity (also called the mechanical law of relativity, or the basis of classical mechanics). The essence of the principle is that under similar conditions, mechanical processes in any inertial reference frames are completely identical.
2. Hooke's law. Its essence is that the greater the impact on an elastic body (spring, rod, console, beam) from the side, the greater its deformation.

Newton's laws (represent the basis of classical mechanics):

1. The principle of inertia states that any body is capable of being at rest or moving uniformly and in a straight line only if no other bodies act on it in any way, or if they somehow compensate for the action of each other. To change the speed of movement, the body must be acted upon with some force, and, of course, the result of the influence of the same force on bodies of different sizes will also differ.
2. The main principle of dynamics states that the greater the resultant of the forces that are currently acting on a given body, the greater the acceleration it receives. And, accordingly, the greater the body weight, the lower this indicator.
3. Newton's third law states that any two bodies always interact with each other according to an identical pattern: their forces are of the same nature, are equivalent in magnitude and necessarily have the opposite direction along the straight line that connects these bodies.
4. The principle of relativity states that all phenomena occurring under the same conditions in inertial reference systems occur in an absolutely identical way.

Thermodynamics

The school textbook, which reveals to students the basic laws (“Physics. Grade 7”), also introduces them to the basics of thermodynamics. We will briefly consider its principles below.

The laws of thermodynamics, which are basic in this branch of science, are of a general nature and are not related to the details of the structure of a particular substance at the atomic level. By the way, these principles are important not only for physics, but also for chemistry, biology, aerospace engineering, etc.

For example, in the named industry there is a rule that defies logical definition: in a closed system, the external conditions for which are unchanged, an equilibrium state is established over time. And the processes that continue in it invariably compensate each other.

Another rule of thermodynamics confirms the desire of a system, which consists of a colossal number of particles characterized by chaotic motion, to independently transition from states less probable for the system to more probable ones.

And the Gay-Lussac law (also called it) states that for a gas of a certain mass under conditions of stable pressure, the result of dividing its volume by the absolute temperature certainly becomes a constant value.

Another important rule of this industry is the first law of thermodynamics, which is also called the principle of conservation and transformation of energy for a thermodynamic system. According to him, any amount of heat that was imparted to the system will be spent exclusively on the metamorphosis of its internal energy and its performance of work in relation to any acting external forces. It was this pattern that became the basis for the formation of the operation scheme of heat engines.

Another gas law is Charles' law. It states that the greater the pressure of a certain mass of an ideal gas while maintaining a constant volume, the greater its temperature.

Electricity

The 10th grade of school reveals interesting basic laws of physics to young scientists. At this time, the main principles of the nature and patterns of action of electric current, as well as other nuances, are studied.

Ampere's law, for example, states that conductors connected in parallel, through which current flows in the same direction, inevitably attract, and in the case of the opposite direction of current, they repel, respectively. Sometimes the same name is used for a physical law that determines the force acting in an existing magnetic field on a small section of a conductor that is currently conducting current. That's what they call it - the Ampere force. This discovery was made by a scientist in the first half of the nineteenth century (namely in 1820).

The law of conservation of charge is one of the basic principles of nature. It states that the algebraic sum of all electric charges arising in any electrically isolated system is always conserved (becomes constant). Despite this, this principle does not exclude the emergence of new charged particles in such systems as a result of certain processes. Nevertheless, the total electric charge of all newly formed particles must certainly be zero.

Coulomb's law is one of the main ones in electrostatics. It expresses the principle of the interaction force between stationary point charges and explains the quantitative calculation of the distance between them. Coulomb's law makes it possible to substantiate the basic principles of electrodynamics experimentally. It states that stationary point charges certainly interact with each other with a force, which is higher, the greater the product of their magnitudes and, accordingly, the smaller, the smaller the square of the distance between the charges in question and the medium in which the described interaction occurs.

Ohm's law is one of the basic principles of electricity. It states that the greater the strength of the direct electric current acting on a certain section of the circuit, the greater the voltage at its ends.

They call it a principle that allows you to determine the direction in a conductor of a current moving in a certain way under the influence of a magnetic field. To do this, you need to position your right hand so that the lines of magnetic induction figuratively touch the open palm, and extend your thumb in the direction of movement of the conductor. In this case, the remaining four straightened fingers will determine the direction of movement of the induction current.

This principle also helps to find out the exact location of the magnetic induction lines of a straight conductor conducting current at a given moment. It happens like this: place the thumb of your right hand so that it points and figuratively grasp the conductor with the other four fingers. The location of these fingers will demonstrate the exact direction of the magnetic induction lines.

The principle of electromagnetic induction is a pattern that explains the process of operation of transformers, generators, and electric motors. This law is as follows: in a closed loop, the greater the induction generated, the greater the rate of change of the magnetic flux.

Optics

The Optics branch also reflects part of the school curriculum (basic laws of physics: grades 7-9). Therefore, these principles are not as difficult to understand as they might seem at first glance. Their study brings with it not just additional knowledge, but a better understanding of the surrounding reality. The basic laws of physics that can be attributed to the study of optics are the following:

1. Guynes principle. It is a method that can effectively determine the exact position of the wave front at any given fraction of a second. Its essence is as follows: all points that are in the path of the wave front in a certain fraction of a second, in essence, themselves become sources of spherical waves (secondary), while the location of the wave front in the same fraction of a second is identical to the surface , which goes around all spherical waves (secondary). This principle is used to explain existing laws related to the refraction of light and its reflection.
2. The Huygens-Fresnel principle reflects an effective method for resolving issues related to wave propagation. It helps explain elementary problems associated with the diffraction of light.
3. waves It is equally used for reflection in a mirror. Its essence is that both the incident beam and the one that was reflected, as well as the perpendicular constructed from the point of incidence of the beam, are located in a single plane. It is also important to remember that the angle at which the beam falls is always absolutely equal to the angle of refraction.
4. The principle of light refraction. This is a change in the trajectory of an electromagnetic wave (light) at the moment of movement from one homogeneous medium to another, which differs significantly from the first in a number of refractive indices. The speed of light propagation in them is different.
5. Law of rectilinear propagation of light. At its core, it is a law related to the field of geometric optics, and is as follows: in any homogeneous medium (regardless of its nature), light propagates strictly rectilinearly, over the shortest distance. This law explains the formation of shadows in a simple and accessible way.

Atomic and nuclear physics

The basic laws of quantum physics, as well as the fundamentals of atomic and nuclear physics, are studied in high school and higher education institutions.

Thus, Bohr's postulates represent a series of basic hypotheses that became the basis of the theory. Its essence is that any atomic system can remain stable only in stationary states. Any emission or absorption of energy by an atom necessarily occurs using the principle, the essence of which is as follows: radiation associated with transportation becomes monochromatic.

These postulates relate to the standard school curriculum studying the basic laws of physics (grade 11). Their knowledge is mandatory for a graduate.

Basic laws of physics that a person should know

Some physical principles, although they belong to one of the branches of this science, are nevertheless of a general nature and should be known to everyone. Let us list the basic laws of physics that a person should know:

• Archimedes' law (applies to the areas of hydro- and aerostatics). It implies that any body that has been immersed in a gaseous substance or liquid is subject to a kind of buoyant force, which is necessarily directed vertically upward. This force is always numerically equal to the weight of the liquid or gas displaced by the body.
• Another formulation of this law is as follows: a body immersed in a gas or liquid certainly loses as much weight as the mass of the liquid or gas in which it was immersed. This law became the basic postulate of the theory of floating bodies.
• The law of universal gravitation (discovered by Newton). Its essence is that absolutely all bodies inevitably attract each other with a force, which is greater, the greater the product of the masses of these bodies and, accordingly, the less, the smaller the square of the distance between them.

These are the 3 basic laws of physics that everyone who wants to understand the functioning mechanism of the surrounding world and the peculiarities of the processes occurring in it should know. It is quite simple to understand the principle of their operation.

The value of such knowledge

The basic laws of physics must be in a person’s knowledge base, regardless of his age and type of activity. They reflect the mechanism of existence of all of today's reality, and, in essence, are the only constant in a continuously changing world.

Basic laws and concepts of physics open up new opportunities for studying the world around us. Their knowledge helps to understand the mechanism of existence of the Universe and the movement of all cosmic bodies. It turns us not into mere observers of daily events and processes, but allows us to be aware of them. When a person clearly understands the basic laws of physics, that is, all the processes occurring around him, he gets the opportunity to control them in the most effective way, making discoveries and thereby making his life more comfortable.

Results

Some are forced to study in depth the basic laws of physics for the Unified State Exam, others due to their occupation, and some out of scientific curiosity. Regardless of the goals of studying this science, the benefits of the knowledge gained can hardly be overestimated. There is nothing more satisfying than understanding the basic mechanisms and patterns of existence of the world around us.

Don't remain indifferent - develop!

It is known that at the end of the 19th century it was announced that the laws of classical physics work successfully only in the macroworld, while others work in the microworld - quantum laws. This point of view was dominant throughout the twentieth century. And now, when, on the basis of the laws of classical physics, we have identified models of the photon, electron, proton, neutron and the principles of the formation of nuclei, atoms and molecules, the question arises: did the physicists of past generations make a mistake by burying the ability of classical physics to solve problems of the microworld? To answer this question, let's carefully analyze the origins of distrust in classical physics when searching for an acceptable interpretation of experimental information about black body radiation (Fig. 103).

It all started with the establishment of the law of black body radiation (Fig. 103). The derivation of the mathematical model of this law, carried out by Max Planck at the beginning of the twentieth century, was based on concepts and ideas that were believed to contradict the laws of classical physics.

Rice. 103. Graphic model of a completely black body

Planck introduced into the mathematical model of the law of black body radiation a constant with the dimension of mechanical action, which clearly contradicted the ideas about the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, his mathematical model quite accurately described the experimental dependences of this radiation. The constant he introduced indicated that the radiation was not continuous, but in portions. This contradicted the Rayleigh-Jeans radiation law, which was based on ideas about the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation, but described experimental dependences only in the low frequency range.

Since the mathematical model of the law of black body radiation contains a mathematical model of the Rayleigh-Jeans law of radiation, it turns out that Planck’s law of black body radiation is based on mutually exclusive wave and corpuscular ideas about the nature of radiation.

The incompatibility of the continuous wave process of radiation with the partial process was a compelling reason for recognizing the crisis of classical physics. From that moment on, physicists began to believe that the scope of the laws of classical physics was limited to the macrocosm. In the microworld, they believe, other, quantum laws work, therefore the physics that describes the microworld should be called quantum physics. It should be noted that Max Planck tried to deal with the mixture of such physical concepts and return them to the classical path of development, but he was unable to solve this problem.

Almost a hundred years later, we have to admit that the boundary between the laws of classical and quantum physics has not yet been established. Significant difficulties are still experienced in solving many problems of the microworld and many of them are considered unsolvable within the framework of established concepts and ideas, so we are forced to return to Max Planck’s attempt to derive a mathematical model of the law of black body radiation based on classical concepts.

Classical physics is understood as the fundamental basis for the study of macro-objects. To illustrate this point, consider the following example. How does the car move? The translational movement of the pistons in the cylinders is converted into the rotational movement of the wheels. The wheels are pushed off the road surface, and as a result the car moves in space in relation to surrounding objects. All these processes are studied by Mechanics. The beginning of the “chain” of mechanical movements is the movement of the piston, which pushes the gaseous mixture in the combustion chamber. Processes in gases are studied by "Molecular Physics". Part of the energy of the working mixture is converted into piston energy, and part is “thrown out” in the form of heat along with exhaust gases, spent on subsequent compression of the working mixture, etc. These energy processes, on which the efficiency and power of the engine depend, are studied by Thermodynamics. Electromagnetic processes in the ignition system are studied by Electrodynamics. Since these processes are formed with the help of transistors, microcircuits and other devices that are based on quantum phenomena, they are studied by “Quantum Physics”.

Thus, the movement of a car is the sum of a variety of phenomena. Various special disciplines study individual phenomena, assemblies and components of a car. This is due to their complexity and has led to the differentiation of science. However, the very first description of the movement of a car is associated with the basic laws of classical physics.

The simplest type of movement of matter in the macrocosm is the movement of bodies in relation to other bodies. To describe it, the basic concepts of kinematics are used: motion, speed, acceleration, relativity of motion, reference system, material point, trajectory, etc. and the basic laws that explain mechanical motion are Newton’s laws:

Every body maintains a state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion until it is forced by applied forces to change this state. (Law of inertia).

The change in momentum is proportional to the applied acting force and occurs in the direction of the straight line along which this force acts (the second law is the main law of dynamics).

An action is always an equal and oppositely directed reaction, i.e. the interactions of two bodies on each other are equal and directed in opposite directions (third law).

According to the laws of mechanics, the main cause of movement is the action of forces. Therefore, much attention is paid to the analysis of the concept of force in classical physics. Forces are divided into: elastic force (it is associated with the deformation of bodies) and friction force. The nature of these forces is related to the electrical interaction between atoms; gravitational force (it is called the force of gravity, under its action free bodies fall to the Earth). The force of gravity often manifests itself in the form of weight - the force with which the body acts on a support; force of inertia.

There are different forms of motion of matter (mechanical, thermal, electrical, etc.), which can transform into each other. Therefore, physics uses the most important concept that expresses the measure of the transition of one form of motion to another - this is energy. The most important laws of classical physics are the laws of conservation:

Law of conservation of energy: energy is neither destroyed nor created, but can only pass from one form to another.

Law of conservation of momentum: if the sum of external forces is zero, the momentum of a system of bodies remains constant during any processes occurring in it.

In modern physics, these most important laws retain their fundamental significance; they are fulfilled always and everywhere, not only in the macrocosm, but also in space and in the microcosm.

Despite the fact that classical thermodynamics was an integral part of classical physics, the unidirectionality of thermal processes fundamentally distinguished them from mechanical ones. Any mechanical movement is reversible, i.e. can occur both in the forward and reverse directions through the same intermediate states: rotation of the flywheel, swing of the pendulum, etc. In this case, only the sign of time changes in the equations of motion: instead of

t should be used –t. This means that mechanical motion is symmetrical with respect to the change in the sign of time. Thermal processes in this sense are significantly different: they are irreversible, not symmetrical with respect to the change in the sign of time. Time always flows in one direction, the so-called “arrow of time”.

All real processes occur with an increase in entropy, i.e. lead to the establishment of thermal equilibrium. It follows from this that all order in the surrounding world gradually disappears, the densities of particles and temperatures level out, energy dissipates, over time, all directed movement, all life ceases, and only molecular chaos remains. For a long time, the minds of not only physicists, but also philosophers were occupied by the idea of ​​the thermal death of the Universe.

The coexisting concepts of describing nature - corpuscular and continuum - were mutually exclusive, since they were believed to belong to different spheres of reality. Therefore, the discovery of a dual nature in the same objects meant for classical physics a shock to all its foundations and was called the “crisis of physics.”

Basic concepts of the topic:

The corpuscular concept of nature describes all natural phenomena and processes as the movement of particles.

The continuum concept of nature describes all phenomena and processes as

Substance is a type of matter that has corpuscular properties.

A field is a type of matter that represents the interaction of particles and is described by wavelength, phase and amplitude.

Dynamic patterns reflect an objective pattern in the form of an unambiguous connection between physical quantities expressed quantitatively.

Statistical patterns reflect an objective pattern in the form of the result of the interaction of a large number of elements and therefore characterize their behavior as a whole.

Closed (closed) systems are systems that do not exchange either mass or energy with their surroundings.

Entropy is a measure of disorder in a system.

The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy.

The second law of thermodynamics – the entropy of a closed system constantly increases.

“Thermal death of the Universe” - the direction of all processes in the Universe towards the point of thermodynamic equilibrium.



The first law of the photoelectric effect can be explained using classical physics, but second And third laws cannot be explained in it.

The fact is that, according to classical electrodynamics, the energy of a light wave depends only on its amplitude and does not depend on frequency. Therefore, it is impossible to explain the experimentally established second law of the photoelectric effect, according to which the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons increases linearly with increasing frequency of incident light. For the same reason, the third law of the photoelectric effect cannot be explained.

Let us note one more feature of the photoelectric effect, also inexplicable within the framework of classical electrodynamics, - this is the “inertialessness” of the photoelectric effect.

Experience shows that photocurrent occurs At once when light hits electrode 1. According to classical electrodynamics, in order for a light wave to “rock” an electron, giving it energy sufficient for it to escape from the metal, some time must necessarily pass.

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It is known that at the end of the 19th century it was announced that the laws of classical physics work successfully only in the macroworld, while others work in the microworld - quantum laws. This point of view was dominant throughout the twentieth century. And now, when, on the basis of the laws of classical physics, we have identified models of the photon, electron, proton, neutron and the principles of the formation of nuclei, atoms and molecules, the question arises: did the physicists of past generations make a mistake by burying the ability of classical physics to solve problems of the microworld? To answer this question, let's carefully analyze the origins of mistrust in classical physics when searching for an acceptable interpretation of experimental information about black body radiation (Fig. 119).

It all started with the establishment of the law of black body radiation (Fig. 119). The derivation of the mathematical model of this law, carried out by Max Planck at the beginning of the twentieth century, was based on concepts and ideas that were believed to contradict the laws of classical physics.

Rice. 119. a) graphic model of an absolutely black body;

b) – dependence of the radiation density of an absolutely black body on the wavelength of emitted photons

Planck introduced into the mathematical model of the law of black body radiation a constant with the dimension of mechanical action, which clearly contradicted the ideas about the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, his mathematical model quite accurately described the experimental dependences of this radiation. The constant he introduced indicated that the radiation was not continuous, but in portions. This contradicted the Rayleigh-Jeans radiation law, which was based on ideas about the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation, but described experimental dependences only in the low frequency range (236), that is, long wavelengths of radiation (Fig. 119).

First of all, we present the Rayleigh-Jeans formula, which satisfactorily describes the experimental pattern of the low-frequency range of radiation (Fig. 119). Based on wave concepts of electromagnetic radiation, they established that the energy contained in the volume of an absolutely black body is determined by the dependence

, (236)

where is the radiation frequency; - volume of the cavity of an absolutely black body (Fig. 119); - speed of light; - Boltzmann constant; - absolute radiation temperature.

Dividing the left and right sides of relation (236) by volume, we obtain the volumetric density of electromagnetic radiation

. (237)

The derivation of this formula is based on the idea of ​​the existence in a closed cavity of an absolutely black body (Fig. 119, b) of an integer number of standing waves of electromagnetic radiation with a frequency.

To obtain a mathematical model that would describe the entire spectrum of electromagnetic radiation of a black body, Max Planck postulated that the radiation does not occur continuously, but in portions so that the energy of each emitted portion is equal to , and the formula for calculating the density of electromagnetic radiation of a black body turned out to be as follows (Fig. 119)

. (238)

Quantity is a constant with a mechanical dimension of action. Moreover, the meaning of this action was completely unclear at that time. Nevertheless, the mathematical model (238) obtained by Planck quite accurately described the experimental patterns of black body radiation (Fig. 119).

As you can see, the expression in formula (238) plays the role of some significant addition to the Rayleigh-Jeans formula (237), the essence of which boils down to the fact that is the energy of one emitted photon.

Since the mathematical model of the law of black body radiation (238) contains a mathematical model of the Rayleigh-Jeans radiation law (236), it turns out that Planck’s law of black body radiation is based on mutually exclusive wave and corpuscular ideas about the nature of radiation.

The incompatibility of the continuous wave process of radiation with the partial process was a compelling reason for recognizing the crisis of classical physics. From that moment on, physicists began to believe that the scope of the laws of classical physics was limited to the macrocosm. In the microworld, they believe, other, quantum laws work, therefore the physics that describes the microworld should be called quantum physics. It should be noted that Max Planck tried to deal with the mixture of such physical concepts and return them to the classical path of development, but he was unable to solve this problem.

Almost a hundred years later, we have to admit that the boundary between the laws of classical and quantum physics has not yet been established. Significant difficulties are still experienced in solving many problems of the microworld and many of them are considered unsolvable within the framework of established concepts and ideas, so we are forced to return to Max Planck’s attempt to derive a mathematical model of the law of black body radiation based on classical concepts.

Of course, in order to better understand the physical meaning of the Planck addition, one must have an idea of ​​the magnetic structure of the photon, since the physical meaning of Planck’s constant itself is hidden in this structure. Since the product describes the energies of photons of the entire scale of photon radiation, the magnetic structure of the photon is hidden in the dimension of Planck’s constant. We have already established that the photon has such a rotating magnetic structure, the center of mass of which describes a wavelength equal to its radius. As a result, the mathematical expression for Planck’s constant takes the form

As can be seen, Planck's constant has an explicit mechanical dimension of angular momentum. It is well known that the constancy of angular momentum is governed by the law of conservation of angular momentum, and the reason for the constancy of Planck’s constant immediately becomes clear.

First of all, the concept law of conservation of angular momentum" is a concept of classical physics, or more precisely, classical mechanics. It states that if the sum of the moments of external forces acting on a rotating body is equal to zero, then the angular momentum acting on such a body remains constant in magnitude and direction.

Of course, a photon is not a solid body that would only rotate without moving in space, but it has mass and we have every reason to believe that the role of the photon’s mass is played by a magnetic substance rotating relative to its axis, which rotates and moves in space at the speed of light .

From the mathematical model (239) of Planck’s constant it follows that the magnetic model of the photon must be such that a simultaneous change in the mass, radius and frequency of the photon’s rotating magnetic fields would leave their product, reflected in the mathematical expression of Planck’s constant (239), constant.

For example, as the mass (energy) of a photon increases, its wavelength decreases. Let us describe again how this change is realized by Planck’s constant (239) in the photon model (Figs. 15 and 16).

Since the constancy of Planck's constant is governed by the law of conservation of angular momentum , then as the mass of the photon increases, the density of its magnetic fields increases (Fig. 15 and 16) and due to this, the magnetic forces compressing the photon increase, which are always balanced by the centrifugal forces of inertia acting on the centers of mass of these fields. This leads to a decrease in the radius of the photon, which is always equal to its wavelength. But since the radius in the expression of Planck’s constant is squared, then to maintain the constancy of Planck’s constant (239), the frequency of photon oscillations must increase. Because of this, a slight change in the mass of a photon automatically changes its radius and frequency so that the angular momentum (Planck's constant) remains constant.

Thus, photons of all frequencies, while maintaining their magnetic structure, change mass, frequency and radius so that . That is, the principle of this change is governed by law of conservation of angular momentum.

If you ask the question: why do photons of all frequencies move in a vacuum at the same speed? Then we get the following answer. Because the change in photon mass and its radius is controlled by the law of photon localization in such a way that as the mass of a photon increases, its radius decreases and vice versa.

Then, to maintain the constancy of Planck's constant, as the radius decreases, the frequency must increase proportionally. As a result, their product remains constant and equal. In this case, the speed of the photon center of mass (Fig. 20, a) changes in the wavelength interval in such a way that its average value remains constant and equal and does not take zero values ​​(Fig. 20, a).

Thus, the constancy of Planck's constant is governed by one of the most fundamental laws of classical physics (or rather, classical mechanics) - the law of conservation of angular momentum. This is a pure classical mechanical law, and not some kind of mystical Kantian action, as was previously believed. Therefore, the appearance of Planck’s constant in the mathematical model of the law of black body radiation does not provide any grounds for asserting the inability of classical physics to describe the process of radiation of this body. On the contrary, the most fundamental law of classical physics - the law of conservation of angular momentum - is precisely involved in the description of this process.

Thus, Planck's law of black body radiation is a law of classical physics and there is no need to introduce the concept of “Quantum physics”. There is also a classical derivation of Planck’s formula (239). It is based on corpuscular concepts of the structure of photons. We present this conclusion.

Since black body radiation is a collection of photons, each of which has only kinetic energy, we must introduce the kinetic energy of the photon and the thermal energy of the collection of emitted photons into the mathematical model of the Maxwellian distribution law

. (240)

Next, we must take into account that photons are emitted by the electrons of atoms during their energy transitions. Each electron can make a series of transitions between energy levels, emitting photons of different energies. Therefore, the complete distribution of the volumetric energy density of emitted photons will consist of the sum of distributions that take into account the energies of photons of all energy levels. Taking into account the above, Maxwell’s law, which takes into account the distribution of photon energies of all energy levels of the atom, will be written as follows

where is the main quantum number that determines the number of the energy level of the electron in the atom.

It is known that the sum of series (241) is equal to

. (242)

Multiplying the right-hand side of formula (242) by the Planck constant and by the coefficient from the Rayleigh-Jeans formula (236), we obtain a result that describes the pattern of changes in the photon density in the cavity of a black body (Fig. 119, a) from the frequency of photons or their wavelength ( Fig. 119, b)

. (243)

This is the law of black body radiation (243), obtained by Max Planck in 1901. Expression (243) differs slightly from expression (242) by the coefficient, which, as was previously believed, takes into account the number of degrees of freedom of electromagnetic radiation of a black body. According to E.V. Shpolsky its value depends on the nature of the waves of electromagnetic radiation and can vary from to. However, within the framework of the stated ideas, the variable coefficient

(244)

characterizes the density of photons in the cavity of a black body. A more accurate value of the constant component of this coefficient can be determined experimentally.

Thus, we have derived the law of black body radiation (243), based on pure classical ideas and concepts, and we see a complete lack of reason to believe that this law contradicts classical physics. On the contrary, it is a consequence of the laws of this physics. All components of the mathematical model of Planck's law (238) of black body radiation have acquired their long-standing clear classical physical meaning.

Let us pay special attention to the fact that in the spectrum of an absolutely black body there are photons (Fig. 15, 16 and 119) of different radii, and the maximum temperatures (2000 and 1500 degrees C, Fig. 119) are formed by a set of photons with certain radii, the values ​​of which determined quite accurately by Wien's formula

. (245)

For example, a maximum temperature of 2000 C forms a set of photons with radii

These are invisible photons of the infrared range and we immediately have an objection. Experience tells us that the temperature of 2000 C is formed by visible photons of the light range. This point of view is a clear example of the fallacy of our intuitions. Let us explain its essence using the following example.

Sunny frosty winter day with a temperature of minus 30 degrees. Celsius with crisp snow underfoot. The abundance of sunlight gives us the illusion of maximum light photons surrounding us, and we are ready to confidently state that we are in the environment of photons with an average wavelength (more precisely, now with an average radius) of a light photon (Table 2). But Wien's law (245) corrects us, proving that we are in an environment of photons, the maximum collection of which has radii (wavelengths) equal to (Table 2).

As you can see, our intuitive error is more than two orders of magnitude. On a bright sunny winter day with a frost of minus 30 degrees, we are in an environment with a maximum number of not light, but infrared photons with wavelengths (or radii).

In passing, we note that the wavelengths (radii) of photons vary over an interval of 16 orders of magnitude (Fig. 15, 16). The largest radii () have photons of the cosmic microwave background (Table 2), which form the minimum possible temperature near absolute zero, and the smallest () - gamma photons (Table 2) do not form any temperature at all. The formation of the photon structure and their behavior are controlled by 7 constants.

The information presented convinces us of the validity of Wien's formula (245) and we can find the radii of photons, the totality of which forms the second temperature maximum (Fig. 119, b) in the black body cavity (Fig. 119, a).

. (248)

As can be seen (247 and 248), with increasing temperature, the radii of photons, the totality of which forms the temperature, decrease. This means that the temperature near absolute zero is formed by photons with the largest radii, and we will now see this (Fig. 120).

Rice. 120: a) photo of a tiny part of the Universe; b) dependence of the radiation density of the Universe on wavelength: theoretical – thin line; experimental – thick line

It was believed that Wien's formula (245) is valid only for closed systems (Fig. 119, a). However, we will now see that it ideally describes not only the radiation of an absolutely black body (Fig. 119, a), as a closed system, but also the Universe – an absolutely open system (Fig. 120, a).

The theoretical dependence of the radiation density of the Universe (Fig. 120, b – thin line) is similar to the dependence of the radiation density of an absolutely black body (Fig. 119, a) described by Planck’s formula (243).

The maximum radiation of the Universe was recorded experimentally at temperature (Fig. 120, b, point A) and has a wavelength . Wine's formula (245) gives the same result

(249)

This is clear proof that Wien's law is valid not only for closed systems, such as an absolutely black body (Fig. 119, a), but for absolutely open ones, such as the Universe (Fig. 120, a).

To find the source of the maximum radiation of the Universe (Fig. 120, b, points A and 3), let us pay attention to the fact that the Universe we observe consists of 73 percent hydrogen, 24 percent helium and 3 percent heavier elements. This means that the spectrum of the Universe (Fig. 120, b) is formed by photons emitted mainly by newly created hydrogen atoms. It is also known that the birth of hydrogen atoms is accompanied by the process of bringing an electron closer to a proton, as a result of which the electron emits photons.

Coincidence of the theoretical value of the wavelength (Fig. 120, b, point 3) with its experimental value (Fig. 120, b, point A), proves the correctness of using the Wien formula (245) to analyze the radiation spectrum of the Universe.

Photons with wavelength have energy

The energy corresponds to the binding energy of an electron with a proton at the moment it is at the 108th energy level. It is equal to the energy of the photon emitted by the electron at the moment of contact with the proton and the formation of a hydrogen atom.

The process of bringing an electron closer to a proton is stepwise. It occurs during their joint transition from an environment with a high temperature to an environment with a lower temperature or, more simply, when moving away from the stars. The approach of an electron to a proton occurs in steps. The number of skipped steps in this transition depends on the temperature gradient of the medium in which the born hydrogen atom moves. The greater the temperature gradient, the more steps an electron can skip when approaching a proton.

Naturally, after the formation of hydrogen atoms, the phase of formation of hydrogen molecules begins, which should also have a maximum radiation. It is known that atomic hydrogen transforms into molecular hydrogen in the temperature range.

The radii of photons emitted by electrons of hydrogen atoms during the formation of its molecule will vary in the range:

; (251)

, (252)

corresponding to the interval of photon wavelengths that form a maximum in the area of ​​point C (Fig. 120, b).

Thus, we have reason to believe that the maximum radiation of the Universe, corresponding to point C (Fig. 120), is formed by photons emitted by electrons during the synthesis of hydrogen atoms and molecules.

However, this does not end the processes of hydrogen phase transitions. Its molecules, moving away from the stars, pass through a zone of successive temperature decreases, the minimum value of which is T = 2.726 K. It follows from this that hydrogen molecules pass through a temperature zone at which they liquefy. She is known and equal. Therefore, there is reason to believe that there should be another maximum of radiation from the Universe, corresponding to this temperature. The wavelength of the photons forming this maximum is equal to

. (253)

This result almost completely coincides with the maximum at the point in Fig. 120 and proves that the radiation spectrum of the Universe is formed by the processes of synthesis of atoms and molecules of hydrogen, as well as the liquefaction of hydrogen molecules. These processes occur continuously and have nothing to do with the fictitious Big Bang.

As can be seen (246 - 253), Wien's formula (245) is valid not only for closed systems, such as the cavity of an absolutely black body (Fig. 119, a), but also for open ones, like the Universe.