Vocabulary of limited use. Stylistic features of vocabulary of limited scope of use Vocabulary of words of common and limited use

Special vocabulary.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language contains a large number of special words denoting certain concepts from the field of various professions, labor processes, scientific and technical activities, social practice, sports, etc.

The question of classifying special vocabulary turns out to be extremely difficult, because Special vocabulary is formed and functions in numerous areas of the most diverse professional, labor and scientific-technical activities, as well as in certain groups not directly related to production (for example, in various sports groups).

The second main issue related to the study of special vocabulary is the question of the linguistic essence of the term. There are two approaches to the study of this issue - normative (putting forward a number of requirements for the term: unambiguity, accuracy, brevity, absence of synonyms, etc.) and descriptive (requiring the distinction between redundant and non-redundant features - at different levels).

In the history of the development and enrichment of the vocabulary of the Russian language, professional and terminological vocabulary played a very important role.

A significant part of the terms have acquired new meanings in modern common literary language, i.e. determinologization has occurred... the splitting of the general semantics of a word into separate independent meanings (terminological and general literary), for example, excitement, accumulate, contact, potential, demagnetize...

Determinologized vocabulary occupies a prominent place in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language and is widely used to enhance the expressiveness of oral and written statements.

Slang and argotic vocabulary.

In various social groups and work teams, under the influence of certain socio-psychological factors, lexical units with a reduced professional connotation may appear, collectively forming professional jargon (jargon - French jargon, or slang - English slang). Jargons that make up the lexical base of a particular jargon are usually used in a narrow circle of people who have common professional interests or some other social community.

Professional jargons became quite widespread in the pre-revolutionary period among craftsmen who had a “guild” organization (tailors, shoemakers, printers, etc.). For example, in the speech of printers (newspapers) slang words existed and continue to exist: veneer - “a thin metal plate inserted between the lines of typesetting; goat - “omission of letters and words in the print”; blunder - “a gross mistake made in printing. Examples of jargon used in other professional groups: suitcase - “dense young spruce forest” (hunters), jig - “artificial bait for fish” (fishermen).

Argotisms are also very close to slang vocabulary. Argo (French argot - closed) is a closed social dialect, which is characterized by the presence of artificially invented words that replace common vocabulary and are used either for the purpose of conspiracy or for the purpose of deliberately “emphasizing” by the speakers of this argot their social isolation and “dissimilarity” with generally accepted norms of society behavior.

The speech of the so-called “camp inmates” - criminals - is also replete with argotisms.

Here are words from their everyday life: urkagan - “hero of the underworld”, raspberry - “shelter, hangout”, olive - “bullet”, maidan - “bazaar”, bochata - “clock”, jackal - “beggar”, wick - “ disabled person", paddock - "bunk", knock - "inform", informer - "informer".

Youth argot (jargon) is quite widespread in the school and student environment these days. Its vocabulary material consists of lexical and phraseological units that are very far from the true beauty, expressiveness and penetration of the Russian word.

The source of modern youth argot is primarily the psychological expression in which a young person can be and which encourages him to be original, to try to “make an impression” with his demeanor, his hairstyle, his clothing style, and, finally, his speech. Although the emergence and spread of youth argot is due to certain socio-psychological reasons, the very fact of the existence of this phenomenon causes great harm to the improvement of speech culture and the education of intelligence among the younger generation of our time, because sometimes deprives many of its representatives of the ability to understand the deepest meaning of the lofty works of literary genius, to feel the beauty of the pure Russian word and the aesthetics of living Russian speech.

Examples of youth argotisms include the following words: truncate - “understand, grasp the meaning”, give out ~ “do something especially impressive”, act out - “inappropriate to say something”, frame (sya) - “attract the attention of a girl ( young men)".

Dialectal vocabulary.

The national vocabulary, which forms the vocabulary basis of the modern Russian literary language, is opposed by groups of words that are known only to a limited circle of people united by a territorial dialect or social community.

The set of lexical units that constitute a specific affiliation of a particular territorial dialect and are common in the speech of only the local population forms dialect vocabulary.

Dialectal vocabulary remains outside the boundaries of the literary language and, as already noted, is used only in the oral speech of speakers of a particular territorial dialect. In addition, writers can use dialect vocabulary in works of art to characterize characters’ speech or to generally stylize speech.

However, excessive “saturation” of the vocabulary material of a work with dialect vocabulary leads to a decrease in artistry and makes it difficult to understand.

Many dialect words penetrate into the literary language, gradually become fixed in it and even lose their dialect specificity. Such words are perceived by speakers as words of a literary language with one or another shade of emotionality and expressiveness. This is exactly how in the 19th century. The following words entered the literary language and gradually lost their dialect specificity: hunger strike, kids, arrogant, confusion, boring, etc.

Many colloquial words should be distinguished from dialect vocabulary. For example, colloquial (not dialectal) words are: blond, plump, thrashing, grinding, flickering, foisting, poor, dead, muzzle, yell, deceive, stunned, horde, hard worker, canteen, hard worker, be rude, wimpy, hang around and etc.

The huge vocabulary of the Russian language, from the point of view of the scope of use, is divided into two large groups by linguists - vocabulary of unlimited use(common words that are understandable to all speakers of a given language in all cases: bread, family, city, garden, sun, moon, table, etc.) and restricted vocabulary(words used in a certain area - professional, territorial, social, and therefore understandable to a limited circle of native speakers; these include professionalisms, dialectisms, jargon, terms). What are words with a limited scope of use? Let us briefly describe them.

Professionalisms- words and expressions used by people of the same profession (journalists, miners, military, builders, etc.). In most cases, they do not belong to official, legalized names. They are characterized by great detail in the designation of special concepts, tools, production processes, and materials. Thus, in the speech of carpenters and joiners, a plane, a tool for planing boards, has varieties: jointer, humpback, sherhebel, bear, road worker. In professional speech, logs and boards differ in size, shape and are called: beam, bench, plate, quarter, slab and etc.

Professionalisms often have expressiveness, which makes them similar to jargon. Thus, drivers of buses, trucks, and cars call the steering wheel a steering wheel, printers figuratively call quotation marks, based on their appearance, Christmas trees (“”), paws (“”), and a common headline in a newspaper is a header.

Dialectal vocabulary- words that are limited in territorial terms, understandable only to residents of a given locality, farmstead, village, village, village. For example: bispoy - “gray-haired, silvery” (in the dialects of the Arkhangelsk region); zobat - “to eat” (in Ryazan dialects); zhvarit - “to hit hard, to pound” (in the Kaluga dialect). Sometimes dialect words have the same sound as words in the literary language, but are used with a different meaning. In many dialects, for example, the word weather does not mean any state of the atmosphere, as in the literary language, but a certain weather: in the Oryol and Kursk regions - a clear, sunny day; in Kostroma, Yaroslavl, Tambov - rain or snowfall.

Jargonisms- words and expressions belonging to any jargon. In modern linguistic literature, the word jargon is usually used to denote various branches of the national language, which serve as a means of communication for different social groups. The emergence of jargons is associated with the desire of people to oppose themselves to society or other social groups, to isolate themselves from them, using the means of language. For example: skulls, shoelaces (parents); feature (feature of something), violet (indifferent). Unlike the common language, which is designed to facilitate broad communication between people, jargon is a “secret” language, the purpose of which is to hide the meaning of what is being said from a “stranger.” They often talk and write about youth slang. This phenomenon can hardly be called jargon, because it has no social roots. Young people, especially teenagers, for the purpose of age-related “self-affirmation” begin to use words and buzzwords that differ from the generally accepted speech norm. Elements of diverse vocabulary are used: foreign words, professionalisms (sailors, musicians), vulgarisms, dialectisms and, to some extent, jargon. They are used as a sign of belonging to a certain “clan” - age group. These words are used thoughtlessly, unconsciously, their meaning is very approximate, and their origin is most often unknown to the speaker. All slang words represent stylistically reduced vocabulary and are outside the boundaries of the literary language. They, like any word of a literary language or dialect, become obsolete and disappear over time, or instead of some jargons others appear. Thus, among the names of money, the jargon no longer occurs: crunch (ruble), fifth (5 rubles), red, dean (10 rubles), angle (25 rubles).

From the point of view of the degree of distribution and activity of use in the vocabulary of the Russian language, it is differentiated common vocabulary , i.e. known to the entire Russian people and used by all speakers of the Russian language ( read, five, white, man, city etc.), and uncommon vocabulary , that is, limited in its use either by territory, or by the framework of social groups (including professional ones), or by the time of existence in the Russian language.
The main categories of vocabulary of limited use are dialectisms and special vocabulary.
Dialectisms - these are words that are used mainly by residents of a particular area. Dialectisms are part of folk dialects (territorial dialects). For example: drone(South Russian) - to speak, beat up(Northern Russian) - to speak.
Special vocabulary - these are words used in speech by representatives of certain branches of knowledge and professions. The core of special vocabulary is terms- words denoting strictly defined concepts of various sciences ( hypotenuse - in mathematics: the side of a right triangle that lies opposite the right angle; affix - in grammar: a morpheme that contains word-formation or actual formal meaning; reprisals - in international law: coercive measures taken by a state in response to the unlawful actions of another state).
The periphery of special vocabulary consists of professionalisms and jargons.
Professionalisms - these are words and phrases characteristic of people of a certain profession. For example: cook - cook (in the speech of sailors), window— free time between classes (in the speech of teachers, students).
Jargonisms- these are words and expressions used by a separate social group for the purpose of linguistic isolation, separation from the main part of native speakers. For example: clave - keyboard, ICQ - communication program (in computer jargon), clipak - video clip, hang out - walk, have fun in company (in youth jargon).
Professionalism and jargon are outside the boundaries of common literary language.
The vocabulary of limited use also includes obsolete words (historicisms and archaisms) and new words (neologisms).
Historicisms- these are outdated words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the objects or phenomena they denote. For example: chain mail - ancient military armor in the form of a shirt made of metal rings, wagon - covered road wagon, bekesha — men's coat (lined with fur or cotton wool) with ruching at the waist.
Archaisms- these are outdated words naming objects or concepts for which new names have appeared in the language. For example: this - this, salary - salary, salary, cheeks - cheeks.
Neologisms- these are new words that have recently entered the language and have not yet lost their novelty and unusualness. For example: in the 80s. XX century — perestroika - fundamental changes in politics and economics aimed at establishing market relations, developing democracy and openness; in the 90s XX century — boutique - small store of expensive fashion goods, mass media- mass media, tagline - slogan.
Most neologisms usually quickly become common words; some neologisms can exist as individually authored new formations, or occasionalisms (for example: lips merge- from V.V. Mayakovsky, Pushkinots - from V. Khlebnikov).

The vocabulary of the Russian language is heterogeneous in terms of the degree of its distribution and activity of use, as well as in the nature of its stylistic coloring. From the point of view of the degree of distribution and activity of use in the vocabulary of the Russian language, commonly used vocabulary is differentiated, i.e.

E. known to the entire Russian people and used by all speakers of the Russian language (read, five, white, man, city, etc.), and vocabulary is not commonly used, i.e. limited in its use either by territory or within social groups (in including professional ones), or the time of existence in the Russian language. The main categories of vocabulary of limited use are dialectisms and special vocabulary. Dialectisms are words that are used primarily by residents of a particular area. Dialectisms are part of folk dialects (territorial dialects). For example: gutarit (South Russian) - to speak, bait (Northern Russian) - to speak. Special vocabulary is words used in speech by representatives of certain branches of knowledge and professions. The core of the special vocabulary consists of terms - words denoting strictly defined concepts of various sciences (hypotenuse - in mathematics: the side of a right triangle lying opposite the right angle; affix - in grammar: a morpheme containing a word-forming or formal meaning; reprisals - in international law : coercive measures taken by a state in response to the unlawful actions of another state). The periphery of the special vocabulary consists of professionalisms and jargon. Professionalisms are words and phrases characteristic of people of a certain profession. For example: cook - cook (in the speech of sailors), window - free time between classes (in the speech of teachers, students). Jargons are words and expressions used by a separate social group for the purpose of linguistic isolation, separation from the main part of native speakers. For example: klava - keyboard, ICQ - communication program (in computer jargon), klipak - video clip, hang out - walk, have fun in the company (in youth jargon). Professionalism and jargon are outside the boundaries of common literary language. The vocabulary of limited use also includes obsolete words (historicisms and archaisms) and new words (neologisms). Historicisms are outdated words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the objects or phenomena they denote. For example: chain mail - ancient military armor in the form of a shirt made of metal rings, kibitka - a covered road cart, bekesha - a man's coat (lined with fur or cotton wool) with ruching at the waist. Archaisms are outdated words naming objects or concepts for which new names have appeared in the language. For example: this - this, salary - salary, salary, cheeks - cheeks. Neologisms are new words that have recently entered the language and have not yet lost their novelty and unusualness. For example: in the 80s. XX century - perestroika - fundamental changes in politics and economics aimed at establishing market relations, developing democracy and openness; in the 90s XX century - boutique - a small store of expensive fashion goods, mass media - mass media, slogan - slogan. Most neologisms usually quickly become common words; some neologisms can exist as individual authorial new formations, or occasionalisms (for example: lips merge - in V.V. Mayakovsky, Pushkin notes - in V. Khlebnikov).

Ex. 58. Match the common words (left column) with dialect synonyms (right column); compare the way of expressing similar concepts.

Ex. 59. Distribute the words into two groups: 1) terms; 2) jargon. Note the cases where jargon arose on the basis of figurative meanings of commonly used words.

Authority (experienced thief), water area (a section of water surface), subsidy (state assistance), cop (policeman), monique (monitor), soap (email), cool (excellent, wonderful, deserving of respect), idiom (stable expression, characteristic only of a given language), ancestors (parents), deportation (forced relocation of individuals and peoples), cash (cash), dude (young man), chaos (natural), party (collective entertainment event), fan (admirer), eclecticism (mechanical combination of different views).

Ex. 60. Using explanatory dictionaries, determine the meanings of outdated words, distinguish between historicisms and archaisms.

Boyar, brow, oratay, cheeks, right hand, oprichnina, treasury, equerry, lorgnette, this, cutting, art, tower, interpreter, yare.

Ex. 61. Using modern explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, determine the meanings of words new to the Russian language. Think about the reasons for their appearance.

Denationalization, post-Soviet, CIS, Duma member, businessman, office, marketing, pager, scanner, printer, killer, mafia, hamburger, ketchup, top model, thriller, portfolio.

The concept of usage

Communication through language occurs primarily within specific social groups. Each of these groups, on the one hand, uses a single, common vocabulary, and on the other hand, is distinguished by the originality of the use of certain categories of words.

In this regard, the vocabulary of the Russian language can be systematized taking into account such a parameter as common use – limited use.

What is common usage? How can it be assessed?

The usage of a word is measured by the number of people actively using it in their speech, and the number of actual facts of its use. All this is included in the concept frequency, which is the most significant indicator of the frequency of a word. The problem of frequency is solved by frequency dictionaries.

Common vocabulary

The basis of the Russian language is popular vocabulary . This is the backbone of the national literary dictionary, this is the core, without which language is unthinkable, communication is impossible, the vast majority of words of which are stable in their use and are used in all styles of speech. Those. The national vocabulary is closely related to the concept of common usage.

Vocabulary limited in its use

The limited use of vocabulary can be explained by both sociolinguistic and linguistic factors. No.:

1) belonging of native speakers to one or another social group;

2) the dependence of the vocabulary used on the conditions, forms, goals of communication (i.e., on styles).

a) Terminology– this is the most representative part of special vocabulary, limited in use. Currently, terminology has turned into a special scientific discipline, in the development of which not only linguists, but also specialists in computer science, science, and representatives of all sciences take part.

Terminology qualifies as "language of science" . In the language of science, there are three layers of vocabulary:

1) non-terminological vocabulary, represented mainly by words with an abstract and generalized meaning;

2) general scientific vocabulary;

3) actual terminological vocabulary, or highly specialized terms characteristic of a particular field of science or technology that make up the terminology system.

The ideal requirement for a term is the requirement of unambiguity and lack of synonymy. And many highly specialized terms meet this requirement,

No.: phoneme, archphoneme, sememe…

But in terminology, a special type of homonymy is widespread: in different terminology systems the same lexemes can be used to denote different concepts.

No.: hyperbola (literary and mathematical),

reduction (linguistic, biology, technical, medical, history)…

Explanatory dictionaries consider this phenomenon as polysemy, but since each of these terms is included in its own terminological system, which is in no way related to the other, it would be more correct to define this phenomenon as intersystem terminological homonymy.

Sometimes the terminological meaning develops in commonly used words:

bow - “front of the ship”,

The rule of lack of synonymy for terms is often violated:

prefix - prefix, ending - inflection…

Terms, unlike commonly used words, have authors: biosphere- IN AND. Vernadsky;

spaceship– S.P. Korolev.

The composition of the terminological vocabulary also differs from the commonly used fund in that most of the words in it are nouns, which are best suited for expressing concepts: acidity, uniqueness, sprinkling…

There is no sharp boundary between terms and commonly used vocabulary, because they interact and live according to the laws of one living lexical system.

b) Professionalism- words that are usually a kind of doublet of some highly specialized terms (Shmelev D.N.).

No.: steering wheel - “steering wheel”;

error – “overlay”;

synchrophasotron - “pan”;

freestyle wrestlers - “freestylers”;

sell tickets - “to fly around”;

musicians playing string instruments And".

There are also accentological professionalisms:

compass - compass;

quarter – quarter;

report - report…

Professionalisms, unlike terms, have a colloquial coloring and are often outside the boundaries of the literary language.

It must be borne in mind that some linguists (N.M. Shansky) put a different meaning into the concept of professionalism: they confuse them with terms.

No.: scalpel, alibi, cutlass, printmaking...

c) Jargons- these are words specific to the oral speech of social groups of people, united not so much professionally as by way of life, social status, and belonging to the same generation.

Jargonisms are closer to professionalisms in the sense that we can talk about military, naval, sports, clerical jargon, and also that jargons are outside the literary language.

But the difference is that jargon is subject to fashion and therefore unstable, i.e. They are characterized by a rapid change of means of expression specific to a given speech. The most widespread “slang-colored” vocabulary is among young people. It forms youth jargon, or slang.

The main factor determining the formation of jargon, or slang, is the need for “our own”, more expressive, emotionally expressive secondary names.

The semantic volume of slang vocabulary is limited:

- phenomena denoting any kind of production life stepa, gosy, tail, zarubezhka, pitchfork (pipe), tower...;

– words expressing a positive or negative assessment

cool, amazing, iron, giant; dregs, crap, boot, goat…;

– maximally reduced vocabulary

ancestors, sharaga, heal….

It is clear that this is a kind of language game, but the game should not turn into a manner of speech, because it will lead to a decrease in the general level of speech culture.

Related to the concept of “jargon” is the concept "argo". This is the conventional speech of any isolated professional or social group of people, characterized by a special set of words and expressions (D.N. Shmelev).

Argo differs from jargon in that it is a “secret, classified” language. Before the revolution, such a secret language was used, for example, by artisans and small traders (ofeni), whose life was connected with constant movements and who needed to maintain professional trade secrets. Such a secret language is necessary (and still is) for declassed elements, opposed to all other speakers of the language.

G) outside the literary language there are also dialectisms. They are similar to jargon and professionalism in the oral form of existence. In all other respects they differ significantly.

The following groups of lexical dialectisms are distinguished:

1) Lexical dialectisms that name well-known objects and have synonyms in the literary language.

No.: gutar - speak;

elan - clearing;

kochet, loudmouth - rooster;

bash - beat;

to educate - to fill.

2) Lexical dialectisms, denoting realities specific to a particular area and not having synonyms in the literary language.

No.: kurzhak - winter frost,

Yaga - a sheepskin coat made from the skin of wolves or dogs.

3) Lexico-semantic dialectisms are words that coincide in sound appearance with the words of the literary language, but have a special meaning in the dialect (homonyms):

ram - small laying of sheaves in the field ( Olonetsky );

ram - a type of mushroom ( Pskov );

ram is a bird of the waders family ( Smolensk );

ram - clay washstand of a special shape ( Vladim ).

There are also ethnographic dialectisms (ethnographisms)- these are words that name objects and phenomena characteristic of a certain area. These are the names of rituals, clothing, plants, etc.

No.: baraba(ur.) – dance;

barmaku(Donsk.) – flat forks of a special kind;

barguzun(sib.) – northeast wind on Baikal.

The use of dialectisms is very wide: as in oral communication as expressive speech means, and in fiction... Local data is interesting: according to T. I. Erofeeva, in the speech of educated residents of Perm there are more than a hundred lexical dialectisms:

Vekhotka (washcloth),